咨詢公司知識管理

‘KnowledgeManagement’

andtheConsultingIndustry第一頁，共二十九頁。TheConsultantOnceuponatimetherewasashepherdtendinghissheepattheedgeofacountryroad.AbrandnewMustangscreechestoahaltnexttohim.Thedriver,ayoungmandressedinanArmanisuit,Cerruttishoes,Oakleyglasses,TAGwristwatchandaBhstiegetsoutandaskstheshepherd,‘IfIguesshowmanysheepyouhave,willyougivemeoneofthem?’Theshepherdlooksattheyoungman,thenlooksatthesprawlingfieldofsheepandsays,‘Okay.’Theyoungmanparksthecar,connectshisnotebookandwirelessmodem,entersaNASAsite,scansthegroundusinghisGPS,opensadatabaseand60Exceltablesfilledwithalgorithms,thenprintsa150pagereportonhishightechminiprinter.Hethenturnstotheshepherdandsays,‘Youhaveexactly1,586sheephere.’Theshepherdanswers:‘That’scorrect,youcanhaveyoursheep.’Theyoungmantakesoneoftheanimalsandputsitinthebackofhisvehicle.Theshepherdlooksathimandasks:‘Now,ifIguessyourprofession,willyoupaymebackinkind?’Theyoungmananswers:‘Sure.’Theshepherdsays,‘Youareaconsultant.’‘Exactly!Howdidyouknow?’askstheyoungman.‘Verysimple,’answerstheshepherd.‘First,youcameherewithoutbeingcalled.Second,youchargedmeafeetotellmesomethingIalreadyknew.Third,youdonotunderstandanythingaboutmybusiness...andI’dreallyliketohavemydogback.’第二頁，共二十九頁。Whatis‘consulting’?TheCollinsEnglishDictionaryrevealsthattoconsultistomakeoneselfavailabletogiveprofessionaladvice,especiallyatscheduledtimesandforafee.Theterm‘consult’originatesinthemedicalprofession.Thereaconsultantisaphysicianwhoisaskedtoconfirmadiagnosis;oritisaphysician(orsurgeon)whoholdsthehighestappointmentinaparticularbranchofmedicineorsurgeryinahospital.Theconsultantisthereforesomeone–mostlyaspecialist–whoisaskedtogiveexpertadviceorinformation.第三頁，共二十九頁。ThemanagementconsultantThemanagementconsultantisaspecialbreedofconsultant.Personificationoftheknowledgeeconomy;Anti-thesistoFord’sassembly-lineworker.Symbolisesthe‘future’ofwork:notdirty,notheavy-duty,notmanual,notmonotonous,notde-skilled,notde-humanized,notbadlypaid;butflexible,creative,international,demanding,cross-cultural,well-paid,technologicallyadvanced,fun.Theidoloftoday’sworkingworld;itisoneofthemain‘drivers’ofthebusinessofbusinesseducationAccenture,PricewaterhouseCoopers(PwC),CapGeminiErnst&Young,McKinsey&Co.,Bain&Co.,TheBostonConsultingGroupandMercer(tonamebutafew)arethearchetypalcompaniesoftoday’sglobal‘informational’capital,whichattractthe‘highestcalibre’graduates.第四頁，共二十九頁。InterConGermansubsidiaryofaglobalmanagementandtechnologyconsultingcompanyTheIKMprojectVirtualprojectteamIT第五頁，共二十九頁。StrategyCAsOperationalProcessesCAsInformationManagementCAsPeopleCAsGMTs(Industries)Telecom&MediaConsumerGoodsChemicalsLifeSciencesFinancialServicesEnergyTransport/TourismAutomotive/EngineeringUtilitiesetc.USAFranceUKGermanyDisciplinesPoAsSupplierNetworksElectronicBusinessEuroTransformationKnowledge-ManagementERP(StandardSoftware)CustomerRelationshipManagementServiceOfferingsOrganisationalStructureofInterCon第六頁，共二十九頁。ProjectKnowledgeCaptureAtProject

Start

Before

Project

EndAccesstoKnowledgeFeedbackandRewardsupdatesKBaseupdatesKBasefinalizeknowledgecapturereport,copytoPKC,PM,GMT/Disc,CoE,CA,PoAKC atprojectend,handsover projectarchivetolocalInfoCentrereviewKCapturereportandtogetherwithstreamleads,identify‘BestinClass’GMTdocumentsKeyRolesGMTKCGMTKnowledgeChampionPMProjectManagerPKCProjectKnowledgeChampionGMTKSGMTKnowledgeSpecialistCoE,CA,PoA,DisciplineKnowledgeSpecialistCoE,CA,PoA,DisciplineKnowledgeChampionALLStrategicDirectionKBaseMaintenanceCoE,CA,Disc.,GMTExpertTeamandKSDefineandcommunicatethestrategicknowledgemanagementobjectivesandsetexpectationsatalllevelse.g.atyearlyKMconferenceinSeptember,CapabilitiesCouncilsandotherleadershipmeetingsQuarterlymeetingwithGMT/Disc.tofilternonrelevantdocumentsout,identifygapsanddiscussexpectationstofillthegaps.UpdateCD-ROMcopiesofToolBoxesandKBases.Projectsaccessknowledgevia:theCOMPASS(intranetwhichprovidesworld-wideaccesstotheKBases),CoE,CA,Discipline,GMTExpertTeamsandKCs(whosemainroleistohelpdevelop,captureanddisseminateknowledge),andKnowledgeSpecialists(whoactasaglobalpointofcontactandanswerspecific,complexrequestsforinformationonacasebycasebasis,throughoutprojectduration).MakeKnowledgeManagementpartofthefeedbackandrewardloop:360oexpectationandfeedbackexchangeforknowledgecaptureRewardmostinnovativeand‘bestinclass’contributions.Internalknowledgemanagementinvolvesanumberofactorsatallstagesoftheprojectlifecyclereviewdocumentsandallocatetotherelevant(GMT,CoE,CA,Disc.)KBasesupdatesP&P

DatabaseContactsPMtoidentifyPKCandKSidentifiesPKCandaccountableKSsends“KCPack”andGMTKBaseCD-ROMcompletesP&PformandforwardstoKSfillsinKCapturereportandsendstoKSdefineandcommunicateknowledgecaptureapproachandsetconcretecaptureexpectationswithteamabstractandsanitizebestdocumentsandsendtoKSInvolvementofallprojectteammembersiscriticaltoachievingourobjectivesGMT,CoE,CAandDisciplinesKCandexpertsplayakeyroleinassessinginnovationsandbestinclasscontributions.InthecasethatthePMidentifiesaKSotherthantheGMTKS,pleaserefertoPanel16toseehowtheKCaptureprocesschanges.Ajointconferencecallforsmallprojectsandanon-siteexpectationsessionforlargeprojectsissuggestedAjointconferencecallforsmallprojectsandanon-siteknowledgecapturesessionforlargeprojectsissuggested第七頁，共二十九頁。Capturingknowledgefromprojectsinvolvesthefollowingprinciples...ProjectKnowledgeCaptureupdatesKBaseupdatesKBasefinalizeknowledgecapturereport,copytoPKC,PM,GMT/Disc,CoE,CA,PoAKC atprojectend,handsover projectarchivetolocalInfoCentrereviewKCapturereportandtogetherwithstreamleads,identify‘BestinClass’GMTdocumentsKey

RolesGMTKCGMTKnowledgeChampionPMProjectManagerPKCProjectKnowledgeChampionGMTKSGMTKnowledgeSpecialistCoE,CA,PoA,DisciplineKnowledgeSpecialistCoE,CA,PoA,DisciplineKnowledgeChampionreviewdocumentsandallocatetotherelevant(GMT,CoE,CA,Disc.)KBasesupdatesP&P

DatabaseContactsPMtoidentifyPKCandKSidentifiesPKCandaccountableKSsends“KCPack”andGMTKBaseCD-ROMcompletesP&PformandforwardstoKSfillsinKCapturereportandsendstoKSdefineandcommunicateknowledgecaptureapproachandsetconcretecaptureexpectationswithteamabstractandsanitizebestdocumentsandsendtoKSInvolvementofallprojectteammembersiscriticaltoachievingourobjectivesGMT,CoE,CAandDisciplinesKCandexpertsplayakeyroleinassessinginnovationsandbestinclasscontributions.TheGMTKScontactsthePM,offersKnowledgeManagementcoachingTheProjectManager(PM)identifiestheProjectKnowledgeChampion(PKC)andtheKnowledgeSpecialist(KS)thatwillbeaccountableforcapturingtheprojectsknowledgeTheaccountableKSwillusuallybetheGMTKS.However,ifaprojectislargelyDiscipline/CA/CoEdriven(forexample,IMDiscipline),thentheappropriateDiscipline/CA/CoEKSshouldbecometheaccountableKnowledgeSpecialist(TheaboveprocessassumestheGMTKSisselected;PleaseseenextslideforDisciplineandA&Dexamples)IfthePMcannotidentifyaKS,theGMTKSisselectedautomaticallyGMTKSsends‘KnowledgeCapture’PackandGMTKBaseCD-ROMExchangeanddocumentationofKnowledgeCaptureexpectationsGMTKSandotherappropriateKS,PM,PKCandotherprojectmembersexchangeconcreteknowledgecaptureexpectationswhicharedocumentedintheKCapturereport(Pleaseseeappendixforatemplate)Ajointconferencecallforsmallprojectsandanon-siteexpectationsettingsessionforlargeprojectsissuggestedPKCsendsKCapturereporttoGMTKSwhoforwardsittootherKS(Discipline,CA,CoE)TheGMTKSensuresthatthePeople&ProjectSummaryissubmittedbythePKCTheGMTKSensuresthatthecasehistory,casestudyandprojectarchiveiscapturedfromtheprojectSelectionof‘BestinClass’documentsTheKnowledgeCapturereportshouldbereviewedAllprojectmembers(undertheleadershipofPKC)reviewallrelevantdocumentsandselectmostinnovativeandother‘BestinClass’GMTaswellasDisc./CA/CoEdocumentsGMT,Discipline,CAandCoEKnowledgeSpecialists,KnowledgeChampionsandotherexpertscanbeconsultedtoidentify‘BestinClass’documentsAone-dayKnowledgeCapturesessionwithallrelevantKSissuggestedforlargeprojects;ajointconferencecallshouldbeorganisedforKCapturefromsmallprojectsTheKCapturereportisupdatedbythePKCandsenttoGMTKSAllidentified‘BestinClass’documentsareabstracted(inEnglish)bytheprojectmembersandsubmittedtotheGMTKSwhoisforwardingrelevantdocumentstootherKnowledgeSpecialists(accordingtoKCapturereport)AllKSreviewthesubmitteddocumentsandupdatetheirKnowledgeDomainsaccordinglyTheKnowledgeCapturereportisfinalizedbyallinvolvedKS(underleadershipofGMTKS)andforwardedtothePKCaswellascopiedtothePMandallrelevantKnowledgeChampionsPrinciplesAtProject

StartBefore

Project

EndInthecasethatthePMidentifiesaKSotherthantheGMTKS,pleaserefertoPanel16toseehowtheKCaptureprocesschanges.Ajointconferencecallforsmallprojectsandanon-siteexpectationsessionforlargeprojectsissuggestedAjointconferencecallforsmallprojectsandanon-siteknowledgecapturesessionforlargeprojectsissuggested第八頁，共二十九頁。FilteringrelevantdocumentsensureshigherqualitycontentintheKnowledgeBaseRelevantprojectdocumentsarecollectedthroughouttheprojectAllprojectmembers(underconsultationwithappropriateKSand/orKC)determinewhetherdocumentshouldbesubmittedoridentifyanynextstepsNoNoIncludedocumentin‘BestinClass’documentpackandsubmittoGMTKSYesNoYesYesAllprojectmembers(undertheleadershipofPKC)reviewallrelevantdocumentsNoYesHow

dowevaluetheimportanceofthedocfortheCA,CoE,GMT,PoAorDisc.?Isdocumentanadditionorbuildtoanexistingdocumentortechnology?Isdocument

anewapplicationof

anexistingtoolortechnology?InnovativeKeyBasicProjectMembersmustselectthe‘BestinClass’projectdocumentsandabstractthem.Onedayon-siteknowledgecapturesessiontogetherwithKnowledgeSpecialistsissuggestedforlargeprojects.第九頁，共二十九頁。ThisisthedetailedworkplanforKnowledgeCapturing0. Setup

0.1 Technicalinfrastructure

-Getorganizedquickly!Chosetheeasiestwaytotransferfilestoyourmachine.Usedisksifnecessary.1. DataMining

1.1 DataTransfer

-copyallfilesintodirectoryA,copythemone-by-onetodirectoryBandrenameaccordingtostandards

1.2 KeepTrackoffiles

-useExcel-sheettoidentifyandcategorizeeveryfile.BeveryexactwiththisXLS-sheet!2. Structuring

2.1 Projectplan

-havetheprojectleadorworkstreamleadsmakeadraftoruseapresentationonthisissue,definetopics

-getthemtoidentifyimportantfilesandassignthemtotopics,markfileswithouttopicforlateruse 2.2 HMTL-structure

-usetemplatesasmuchasyoucan,keeptostandards,involveleadswithdesign3. Prototyping

3.1 Graphics

-convertppt-filestojpg’s,mapthem,definetopicHTML-filenames -createthetopic-HTMLfiles 3.2 HTML-templates

-addclientlogos,changecolors,butstickwiththestandards!4. Encoding 4.1 HTML-files -checkXLS-sheetforgaps,haveleadsfilltheminorsetmarks -usemail-mergefeaturefromWord,viewfileandsaveeachfilewithcorrectfilename(tedious,butcritical)5. Refining 5.1 AbstractsandKeywords

-haveauthorswriteupsomekeywordswherenecessary,addpurposeinformationwhenapropriate 5.2 Test,test,testthestructure,linksandassets6. Production&Presentation第十頁，共二十九頁。

KnowledgeCaptureonProjectXXXWorkstreamAreaof

KnowledgeCaptureWhatAspects

areNovel&WhyRelevantforwhichunitProposedCapture

Date

Project“A”KS“A”TobefilledoutbyProjectteamTobefilledoutbyKSteamActualCapture

DateKBases/Homepages第十一頁，共二十九頁。KnowledgeDomainsofGMTs,Disciplines/CAsandCoEswillhavethefollowingbasicstructureIntroductions,PointsofView,TrainingMaterial,CaseStudies,ExternalReadingsBDBusinessDevelopmentA&DAnalysis&DesignRDResultsDeliveryIndustryissuesConferencesandseminarpresentationsMarketingmaterialCompetitorintelligenceClientreferencesWhatwefindProposalexamplesPeopleandfacultyA&D/impactcasestudiesProjectdesignProgrammanagementandmonitoringBenefitscaseChecklistsTools/methodologiesBestpracticesProgrammanagementandmonitoringH2guideandtoolsBenefitstracking第十二頁，共二十九頁。01 ReadmefirstProcessofKnowledgecaptureContactsandExpertsCurrentLiveprojectportfolio01 PointofViews:InterCon’spointofviewonagivenindustryormethodology,i.e.

someperspectiveisbroughttothedocumentratherthanarecitationoffacts/stepsOften,butnotalways,ashortdocument(15-20pages)includes“whatwefinds”

02 DetailedIndustryOverviews:DetailedoverviewofaspecificindustrySamecontentasPointofView,butmoredetailandmoreemphasisonanalysisIn-depthdescriptionofindustries(majorplayers,industrystructure,criticalsuccessfactors)

03 MarketingSupportMaterials:Qualitymaterialtosharewithclientsduringbusinessdevelopmentandotherclientcommunicationactivities,including:Capabilitybrochures/statementsConferencepresentationsHorseblankets/whitepapersProposals/proposallettersRedissues(sellingissuesforagivenclient/industry)RFP(RequestforProposal;asInterConusesthetermtypicallyadetailedresponsetoaclient’s

RequestforProposalonagivenproject)Whatwefinds(commonissuesinagivenindustryorfunctionwithinanindustry)04 TrainingModules:Training-focuseddocumentstoguideInterConandclientteammembersinapplyingmethodologyor

inunderstandinganindustryincluding:Competencyoverview/trainingobjectivesDetailedmethodologyapproach;detailsimplementationstepsCriticalsuccessfactorsIssues/challenges,lessonslearnedTools/diagnosticsrequired05 KeyTools&Diagnostics(Industryspecific):Foreachdiagnostic/toolrelevanttomethodologyHowtoapply/usetool,expectedresults,detailedstepsSamplepanelsetforpresentingtoclient/steeringcommitteeActualdiagnostictoolofsurvey,spreadsheets,interviews,etc..,andsourcesforvendortoolsAnyscoringspreadsheetsorresourceswhocanassist06 IndustryExamples/Approaches:Documentsdevelopingduringthecourseofaproject,outlininghowInterConplanstoconductworkandwhatdeliverableswillresultorthefinaldeliverablesthemselves.Includes:AsIs/interviewfindingsA&DbusinesscasesChartersIssues/challenges,lessonslearnedFinalreports/deliverablesImplementationplansProjectdesigns/approachesRDexecutiveupdatesStrategicrecommendationsValuechainsWorkshopitems

07 CaseStudiesDocumentsdetailingwhatworkInterConconductedonbehalfofaclientincludingpointssuchasthebackgroundoftheproject,whatwefound,whatwedidandwhatwearelookingforwardto.08 BenchmarkingStudies/Approaches:Benchmarkingdocumentsmaycontainmetrics(specificfigures,e.g.23widgetsperfortnight),processes(e.g.ACMEutilisesconcurrentengineeringtogetgadgetstomarketfasterandwithfewerdefects),orboth.

09 CompetitorProfiles/Approaches:DocumentationreferencinghowcompetitorsapplymethodologyOther‘names'formethodologyIndustryexperienceLessonslearned

10 ExternalReadingList:AbstractsofimportantbooksandarticlesrelevanttomethodologyIncludeaccuratesourceforeach(title,author,date,journaltitleandpagenumbersifappropriate)ContentforIndustryHomepages第十三頁，共二十九頁。H2getfromanunstructuredheapofprojectfiles

toafullyoperationalIntranetstructurein5daysTaskTimetableDescriptionDeliverables1.DataMining2.Structuring0.Setup3.Prototyping4.Encoding5.Refining6.ProductionConnecttolocalsystemsCollectallfilesfrom

project

Defineprojectplan,assignfilestotopics

DesignInternetpagesandlogicalstructureCreateHTML-files,

createlinksImproveabstracts,

reviewkeywordsProducefinalized

Version,Presentation Mon Tue Wed Thu FriTechnicalinfrastructure

inplaceAllfilesrenamedandcatalogized,XLS-sheetKeyareasdefined,

XLS-sheetupdatedHTML-structureandlinksdefinedHTML-filescreatedand

linkedintostructureAllabstractsfinalizedwithkeywordsFinishedIntranetKnowledgeBase第十四頁，共二十九頁。Task0-SetupRequirementsExternalInputsObstaclesActionsDeliverablesLessonsLearnedNeverunderestimatethetimeittakestosetupasystemina

foreignenvironment!-fullyequippedhardware-completesetofsoftware-informationoninfrastructure-disks,laplink-cable,modem-telephoneandmodemline-roomtowork-accesstosystems-User-ID,password-incompatibleHW/SW-nosystemaccess-limitedaccessto

sharedresources-setupcomputer,checkmodemconnection-estimatebestdatatransfermethod-checkdatatransferandcompatibility-getinfoonwhatmaterialtoobtain-checkavailabilityofsharedresources-solutionofmajorITobstacles-independentlyoperationalsystem-hard-/softwarechecks-scopeofdatatransferdefined第十五頁，共二十九頁。Task1-DataMiningRequirementsExternalInputsObstaclesActionsDeliverablesLessonsLearnedSomefilesexistinolderversion.Makesureyouhavethenewestone!Checkinalldisksandsourcesavailable.-connectiontonetworkOR-laplinkconnection-otherdatamedia-accesstosystems-User-ID,password-listofrequiredfiles-incompatibleHW/SW-nosystemaccess-limitedaccessto

sharedresources-transferdata-renamefilesaccordingtostandards-createXLS-sheetwithfileinformation-allfilescopiedandcategorized-XLS-sheetupdatedandcomplete第十六頁，共二十九頁。Task2-StructuringRequirementsExternalInputsObstaclesActionsDeliverablesLessonsLearnedAgooddesignoftheprojectplanimprovesthecategorizingofthefiles.-agreementonprojectscope-supportfromprojectleads-draftofprojectplan-definedtopicareas-ideasondesign-projectleadnot

available-toomanyfiles

undefined-designprojectplangraphics-defineHTML-structure-designHTML-templatepages(abstracts)-designofprojectplangraphics-designofHTML-structure-designofHTMLs-updatedXLS-sheet第十七頁，共二十九頁。Task3-PrototypingRequirementsExternalInputsObstaclesActionsDeliverablesLessonsLearnedCreatinggraphicsforinternetpagestakestime.Don’ttrytogetperfectimages.-OKforprojectplandesign-workstreamleads-projectsleads-complexitytoohigh-integrationcannotbevisualized-createprojectplangraphics-createHTML-mapandlinks-createHTML-template-HTML-structureoperational-projectplanmapcomplete-HTML-templatesfinalized第十八頁，共二十九頁。Task4-EncodingRequirementsExternalInputsObstaclesActionsDeliverablesLessonsLearnedKeepatrackeronmissingorfaultylinks.Alsowatchoutfordoublereferencesandchangesintargetlinks.-structureanddesignMUSTbereadyandapproved-XLS-sheetcomplete-HTML-templatesapproved-OKfordesignand

structure-gapsinXLS-sheetmightbeforgotten-useWordmail-mergefeaturetocreateallHTML-abstracts-teststructureandlinks-allHTMLsandlinkscreated-programmingcompleted第十九頁，共二十九頁。Task5-RefiningRequirementsExternalInputsObstaclesActionsDeliverablesLessonsLearnedNeverunderestimatethetimeittakestosetupasystemina

foreignenvironment!-projectteamshouldcheckthequalityandstructure-buildsfromproject-testruns-incompatibleHW/SW-nosystemaccess-limitedaccessto

sharedresources-identifyweakabstractsandenhancequality-haveteammemberstestthesystem-wrapupmissingends-solutionofmajorITobstacles-independentlyoperationalsystem-hard-/softwarechecks-scopeofdatatransferdefined第二十頁，共二十九頁。Task6-ProductionRequirementsExternalInputsObstaclesActionsDeliverablesLessonsLearnedInordertodeliveraCD-ROM,youhavetokeeptodeadlines.Don’toverengineertheabstracts!-allactivitiesarounddesigningandencodingarefinishedandapproved-alllinksarechecked,allfilesareaccessible-approvalofwork-fileshavebeen

updated-updateXLS-sheettofinalizedversion-removetemplateanddesignfiles-checkforviruses-burncompletesetonCD-ROM-presentationforprojectteam-CD-ROMwithcontents第二十一頁，共二十九頁。KnowledgeandITSwanetal.(1999)havefoundinareviewoftheknowledgemanagementliteraturethatin1998nearly70percentofknowledgemanagementrelatedarticlesappearedininformationsystemsandinformationtechnologyliteratures.“Knowledgemanagementismuchmorethantechnology,but‘techknowledgy’isclearlyapartofknowledgemanagement”(DavenportandPrusak,1998:123).“Themereexistenceofknowledgesomewhereintheorganizationisoflittlebenefit;itbecomesavaluablecorporateassetonlyifitisaccessible,anditsvalueincreaseswiththelevelofaccessibility”(ibid.:18)Expertsystems,artificialintelligence,desktopvideoconferencing,hypertextsystemssuchasintranetsandknowledgemaps.Thepurposeofharnessingknowledgeis,ofcourse,clear:toturnknowledgeintoavaluablecorporateasset,whichwillhelptoincreasethecompetitiveadvantageofcompanies.第二十二頁，共二十九頁。KnowledgeandIntellectualCapital“Theformationofthediscourseonintellectualcapitalispredicatedupontheassumptionthatthetraditionaldouble-entrybookkeepingsystemisnotabletoreflectemergingrealities.Itisaninadequatetoolformeasuringthevalueofcorporationswhosevalue,itisclaimed,liesmainlyintheirintangiblecomponents.”(YakhlefandSalzer-M?rling,2000:20)Today,itisarguedthatcompanyassetsnotonlyincludematerialartefacts,propertiesandfinancialassets,butalsoemployees’andorganisationalknowledges,whichexplicitlyresideinpeople’sheadsandaretacitlyembodied.Someknowledgemanagementwritershavethereforecalledforthedevelopmentofnewsystems,thatwouldenableamoreadequatevaluationofcompanies’assets,andprovidetoolsforexploitingexistingtacitandexplicitknowledgebasesmoreeffectively(see,forexample,Brooking,1996;EdvinssonandMalone,1998;Lynn,1998;NahaphietandGhoshal,1998;Roosetal.,1998;Stewart,1998;Zeleny,1989).第二十三頁，共二十九頁。TacitKnowledgeKnowsomething‘intheory’and‘practicalcommonsense’(Spender,1996).Inmanyworldlanguagesthisdistinctioncanbemademoreexplicit,e.g.wissenandkennen,savoirandconna?tre.‘know-what’and‘know-how’.‘knowingaboutsomething’and‘knowingthroughdirectexperience’(King,1964)or‘knowledgeabout’and‘knowledgeofacquaintance’(James,1950).Whileexperienceisdirectlyrelatedto‘know-how’,‘know-what’istheresultof“systematicthoughtthateliminatesthesubjectiveandcontextualcontingenciesofexperience”(Spender,1996:49).Blackler(1995):embrained,embodied,encultured,embeddedandencoded.Spender(1996):conscious(explicitindividualknowledge),objectified(explicitorganisationalknowledge),automatic(preconsciousindividualknowledge)andcollective(practical,context-dependentorganisationalknowledge).“[T]hequintessentialknowledge-creationprocesstakesplacewhentacitknowledgeisconvertedintoexplicitknowledge.Inotherwords,ourhunches,perceptions,mentalmodels,beliefs,andexperiencesareconvertedtosomethingthatcanbecommunicatedandtransmittedinformalandsystematiclanguage.”(NonakaandTakeuchi:1995:230-231,italicsadded)第二十四頁，共二十九頁。TheKnowledgeCommodity“Thecommodityreflectsthesocialcharacteristicsofmen’sownlabourasobjectivecharacteristicsoftheproductsoflabourthemselves…Itisnothingbutthedefinitesocialrelationbetweenmenthemselveswhichassumeshere,forthem,thefantasticformofarelationbetweenthings.”(Marx,1976:164-165)第二十五頁，共二十九頁。CommodityFetishism“Themysteriouscharacterofthecommodity-formconsiststhereforesimplyinthefactthatthecommodityreflectsthesocialcharacteristicsofmen’sownlabourasobjectivecharacteristicsoftheproductsoflabourthemselves,asthesocio-naturalpropertiesofthesethings.Henceitalsoreflectsthesocialrelationoftheproducerstothesumtotaloflabourasasocialrelationbetweenobjects,arelationwhichexistsapartfromandoutsidetheproducers.Throughthissubstitution,theproductsoflabourbecomecommodities,sensuousthingswhichareatthesametimesupra-sensibleorsocial.Inthesameway,theimpressionmadebyathingontheopticnerveisperceivednotasasubjectiveexcitationofthatnervebutastheobjectiveformofathingoutsidetheeye.Intheactofseeing,ofcourse,lightisreallytransmittedfromonething,theexternalobject,toanotherthing,theeye.Itisaphysicalrelationbetweenphysicalthings.Asagainstthis,thecommodity-form,andthevalue-relationoftheproductsoflabourwithinwhichitappears,haveabsolutelynoconnectionwiththephysicalnatureofthecommodityandthematerial[dinglich]relationsarisingoutofthis.Itisnothingbutthedefinitesocialrelationbetweenmenthemselveswhichassumeshere,forthem,thefantasticformofarelationbetweenthings.Inorder,therefore,tofindananalogywemusttakeflightintothemistyrealmofreligion.Theretheproductsofthehumanbrainappearasautonomousfiguresendowedwithalifeoftheirown,whichenterintorelationsbothwitheachotherandwiththehumanrace.Soitisintheworldofcommoditieswiththeproductsofmen’s