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PolicyResearchWorkingPaper10918
QuestioningtheClimateChangeAgeGap
AlexandruCojocaru
MichaelLokshin
ArinaNikandrova
WORLDBANKGROUP
EuropeandCentralAsiaRegion&PovertyandEquityGlobalPracticeSeptember2024
PolicyResearchWorkingPaper10918
Abstract
Awidelyheldviewinthemediaandamongsomeresearch-ersisthatyoungerpeoplearemoreworriedaboutclimatechangeandmorewillingtosupporttheclimateagendathanoldergenerations.Sucha“climatechangeagegap”isoftenexplainedbythelongertimeyoungerpeopleexpecttoliveunderworseningclimaticconditions.Thispaperdevelopsatheoreticalmodelthatproposesanalternativeexplanationfortherelationshipbetweenageandattitudestowardcli-matechange.Theempiricalanalysisisbasedondatafrom
38countriesinEurope,CentralAsia,andtheMiddleEastfromthe2023roundoftheLifeinTransitionSurvey.Thefindingsdemonstrateapositiverelationshipbetweentherespondents’ageandtheirconcernsaboutclimatechange.Olderpeoplearemorelikelytoobjecttohighertaxestofinancepublicpoliciesingeneral,includingclimatechangepolicies,buteventhisresultissensitivetotheframingofclimateactionquestions.
ThispaperisaproductoftheOfficeoftheChiefEconomist,EuropeandCentralAsiaRegionandthePovertyandEquityGlobalPractice.ItispartofalargereffortbytheWorldBanktoprovideopenaccesstoitsresearchandmakeacontributiontodevelopmentpolicydiscussionsaroundtheworld.PolicyResearchWorkingPapersarealsopostedontheWebathttp:///prwp.Theauthorsmaybecontactedatmlokshin@.
ThePolicyResearchWorkingPaperSeriesdisseminatesthefindingsofworkinprogresstoencouragetheexchangeofideasaboutdevelopmentissues.Anobjectiveoftheseriesistogetthefindingsoutquickly,evenifthepresentationsarelessthanfullypolished.Thepaperscarrythenamesoftheauthorsandshouldbecitedaccordingly.Thefindings,interpretations,andconclusionsexpressedinthispaperareentirelythoseoftheauthors.TheydonotnecessarilyrepresenttheviewsoftheInternationalBankforReconstructionandDevelopment/WorldBankanditsaffiliatedorganizations,orthoseoftheExecutiveDirectorsoftheWorldBankorthegovernmentstheyrepresent.
ProducedbytheResearchSupportTeam
QuestioningtheClimateChangeAgeGap.
AlexandruCojocaru,MichaelLokshin,
andArinaNikandrova1
JEL:Q54,O13,O15
Keywords:Climatechange,EuropeandCentralAsia;governmentpolicies,perceptions.
1AlexandruCojocaruisSeniorEconomistinthePovertyandEquityGlobalPractice,andMichaelLokshinisLeadEconomistintheChiefEconomistOfficeoftheEuropeandCentralAsiaRegion,bothareattheWorldBank.ArinaNikandrovaisSeniorLecturerinEconomicsattheCityUniversityofLondon.Thispaper’sfindings,interpretations,andconclusionsareentirelythoseoftheauthorsanddonotnecessarilyrepresenttheviewsoftheWorldBank,itsExecutiveDirectors,orthecountriestheyrepresent.MiguelPurroyprovidedexcellentassistanceincollecting,processing,andanalyzingdataforthispaper.WethankThomasFarole,IvailoIzvorski,andRicharRecordfortheirconstructivecommentsandsuggestions.Sendcorrespondencetomlokshin@.
2
1.Introduction
InDecember2023,representativesof199countriesconfirmedtheircommitmentstoaddressingtheglobalclimateemergencyandacceleratingclimateactions
(UN2024)
.Thesuccessoftheseglobaleffortsrestsonthewillingnessofindividualcountriestoactupontheirvoluntarily-setmitigationtargets,knownasnationallydeterminedcontributions(NDCs).Theambitionstoimplementsuchpoliciesvarywidelyacrosscountries
(Albalateetal.2023)
.
Amongfactorsthatinfluencecross-countryvariationsinclimatechangeactions,the“climatechangeagegap”-thenotionthatyoungerpeoplecaremoreaboutclimatechangethanolderpeople-causesconcernsabouttheimplementationoftheclimatechangeagenda.
2
Youngclimateactivistscapturingthemediaandpublicattentionreinforcetheperceptionofawideningclimatechangegenerationalgap.
Theagestructureofpopulationsplaysasignificantroleinclimatepolicies.Populationagingresultsinagrowingshareofolderpeoplewhoestablishthemselvesasapowerfulpoliticalforceindecisionsabouttheprovisionofpublicgoods.Theinfluenceofoldergenerationsonpublicpolicy,includingclimatechange,isreinforcedbytheirgreaterparticipationintheelectoralprocesscomparedwithyoungergenerations
(Goerres2007)
.
Differencesinattitudestowardclimatechangeamonggenerationsareoftenattributedtothefactthatyoungerpeoplewilllivelongerunderdeterioratingclimateconditionsand,thus,bemoreaffectedbyitsconsequences.Inversely,theshortertimehorizonsoftheagingpopulationandthefactthatthemainclimatechangecostsaccrueinthefuturesuggestthatolderpeopleshouldbelesssupportiveofclimatechangepolicies.Infact,theempiricalevidenceofthepresenceandthesizeoftheclimatechangeagegapismixedandcontext-dependent(e.g.,
Grayetal.2019)
.
Inthispaper,wedevelopatheoreticalmodelthatexplainswhyandhowpeopleofdifferentagesperceivetheincreasingthreatofglobalwarming.Themodelguidesourempiricalanalysis,whichreliesondatafrom38countriesofEurope,CentralAsia,theMiddleEast,andNorthAfricacollectedin2022-23,duringthefourthroundoftheLifeinTransitionSurvey(LITS).
2Factorsaffectingclimatechangeactioninclude:politicaltrustandbeliefs
(Fairbrotheretal.2019)
;publicoppositionandpoliticalpolarization
(Lachapelleetal.,2012,
Hornseyetal.2016)
;gender,race,education,andincomedistribution
(Ballewetal.2020)
;andsocialnormsandsocialcapital
(Bergquistetal.2019)
3
Wefindnoevidenceofan“agegap”inperceptionsofclimatechange.Olderrespondentsseemtobeas(orevenmore)concernedaboutclimatechangeasyoungerrespondents.However,wedofindthatolderindividualsaremorelikelytoobjecttotaxincreasestofinanceclimateadaptationandmitigationpolicies,whichislikelytoreflectthegeneraldeclineinwillingnesstopaytaxeswithageratherthanaspecificlackofwillingnesstofinanceclimatechangepolicies.
3
Pastexposuretonaturaldisasters,aperson’sphysicalandpsychologicalhealth,thedegreeofriskaversion,sourcesofinformation,trustininstitutions,andwhetherarespondentwasplanningtomoveawayalsoaffectperceptionsandwillingnesstopayforclimatechange,butnoneoftheseconfoundingfactorsreversetheclimatechange-agegradientestimatedbythemostparsimoniousmodels.Thepositiveagegradientisalsorobusttoarangeofspecifications,definitionsofthedependentvariable,andcorrectionsofpotentialomittedvariablebiases.
Thispapercontributestotheliteratureonthedeterminantsofindividualperceptionsandengagementsinclimatechangeactionsinseveralways.First,itdevelopsatheoreticalmodelthatshowsthattherelationshipbetweenageandconcernsaboutclimatechangeandthewillingnesstopayforclimatechangeactionsisambiguousanddependsonvariousfactors.Second,thepaperdistinguishesbetweenclimate-relatedbeliefsandactionstowardclimatechangemitigation,animportantdistinction,asonecanbelievethatclimatechangeisrealandmanmadebutstillnotbewillingtobearanadditionaltaxburdentomitigateitsimpacts.Third,theLiTSdataallowustoaccountforthewiderangeofdeterminantsofclimatebeliefsthatearlierstudieshaveidentifiedasvaryingacrossdifferentagegroups,includingideology,attitudestowardriskandfairness,trustingovernment,primarysourcesofinformation,andhealthconditionswhichcanexacerbateclimatemorbidity.
Thepaperisorganizedasfollows.Section2reviewsrelevantliteratureongenerationaldifferencesinbeliefsaboutclimatechange.Section3discussesthestudy’stheoreticalframeworkandempiricalmethodology.Section4describesthedata.Section5presentsthemainresultsoftheempiricalanalysis.Section6showstheresultofrobustnesstests.Section7summarizesthepaper’smainfindings.
3InApril2024,theEuropeanCourtofHumanRightsissuedarulinginfavorofagroupof2,400Swisswomenoverage64whoarguedthatbecauseolderwomenaremorelikelytodieinheatwaves,SwitzerlandmusttakegreateractiontopreventtheplanetheatingbeyondtheParisagreementtargetof1.5°Canddemandcompensationforthelostconsumptionfromthegovernment,ratherthanpayingtaxestofinanceclimatechangemitigationpolicies
(Daly2024)
.
4
2.Literaturereview
Theliteraturefindsthatclimatechangebeliefsareshapedbyawidearrayofsocio-structuralandpsychologicalfactors,includingage,gender,levelofeducation,socioeconomicstatus,politicalorientation,andvaluesystems
(Milfontetal.,2015;
Echavarren,2017;
Poortingaetal.,2019)
.Thisstudyfocusesonhowbeliefsaboutclimatechangeandwillingnesstotakeclimatechangeactionvarybyage.Manydeterminantsofclimatechangebeliefsmaynotbeuniformlydistributedacrossagegroupsandmaythusmediatetheobservedgradientbetweenageandclimatechangebeliefs.
Theeffectofageonperceptionsofclimatechangehasbeendocumentedacrossmanycountries.
Poortingaetal.(2019)
showthatageisanimportantpredictorofclimatechangebeliefsandconcernsin22EuropeancountriesandIsrael.TheyfindthatthesizeoftheeffectisgenerallysmallerinCentralandEasternEuropeancountriesthanelsewhereintheirsampleandlargerinNorthernEuropeanthaninWesternEuropeancountries.IntheEU,youngerpeoplearemorelikelythanoldpeopletoperceiveclimatechangeasaseriousproblemandplacetheresponsibilityofaddressingtheclimatechangeissuesonbusiness/industrialsectorsandenvironmentalgroups
(Skeiryt?etal.,2022)
.
Milfontetal.(2021)
reportasizeableandpersistentnegativegenerationalgapinthebeliefthatclimatechangeisrealandcausedbyhumans.Theyarguethatthegapoccursbecauseoldercohorts
startedfromalowerbelieflevelbutshowthatpeopleofallagesincreasedtheirbeliefsatasimilarrateovera10-yearperiod.
Albalateetal.(2023)
findanegativeassociationbetweentheshareofolderpeopleinapopulationandboththepolicyambitionsofclimateagreementsandtheintensityofregulatoryinitiativestofightclimatechange,witha1percentincreaseintheshareoftheelderlypopulationassociatedwitha2percentincreaseinthepredictedNDCpercapitaemissionsby2030.
Poortingaetal.(2023)
showthatlevelsofclimate-relatedbeliefs,riskperceptions,andemotionsamongtheyoungergenerationsarehigherthanthoseofoldergenerationsintheUK,withawiderandmoreconsistentgapforclimate-relatedemotionsthanclimate-relatedbeliefs.
Milfontetal.
(2015)
findbothclimatechangeskepticismandanthropogenicclimateskepticismtobemoreprevalentamongolderadultsthanyoungeradultsinNewZealand.
Otherstudiesdonotfindthatolderpeoplearelesslikelythanyoungerpeopletobelieveinclimatechange.
Grayetal.(2019)
reportonlytrivialdifferencesinconcernsaboutclimatechangebetween
5
youngerandolderrespondentsintheUnitedStates.Theirfindingssuggestthatageisnotastrongpredictorofenvironmentalconcernorclimatechangeattitudes.Instead,otherfactors,suchas
politicalideologyandeducation,playmoresignificantrolesinshapingtheseattitudes.
Tranterand
Booth(2015)
findthatagepoorlypredictsclimatechangeskepticismin14advancedindustrialnationsin2010-2011.UsingtheWorldValuesSurvey(2010–14),whichcovers51countries,
Echevarria
(2017)findsthatageispositivelyassociatedwithenvironmentalconcerns.
Better-educatedindividualsareusuallymoreconcernedwithclimatechangethanpeoplewithless
education
(Poortingaetal.2011,
Milfontetal.2015,
Echevarren2017,
Poortingaetal.2019)
.Thelevelofeducationhasincreasedconsiderablyoverthepastcentury.Inbothadvancedanddevelopingcountries,youngercohortstendtobemoreeducatedthanoldercohorts,whichmaymediatetherelationshipbetweenageandclimatechangebeliefs.
Politicalconservatismisassociatedwithclimatechangeskepticism
(McCrightandDunlap2011,
Whitmarsh2011,
Milfont2015)
,butconservativebeliefstendtobenegativelyassociatedwitheducationalattainment
(PewResearchCenter,2016)
.
Poortingaetal.(2019)
showthatindividualsontherightsideofthepoliticalspectrumhavelowerlevelsofeducation,aremorelikelyto
prioritizeself-enhancementoverself-transcendence,andaremorelikelytobeskepticalofclimatechangeoritsanthropocentriclinksthanothers.
4
Conservatismismoreprevalentamongolderindividuals
(Cornelisetal.2009;
Whitmarsh2011)
.
Inameta-analysisofclimatechangebeliefsacross25pollsand171academicstudiesspanning56countries,
Hornseyetal.(2016)
findideology,worldviews,andpoliticalorientationtobeamongthestrongestpredictorsofclimatebeliefs.Free-marketideologyisoneofthestrongestpredictorsofclimatechangeskepticism.InEuropeandCentralAsia,supportforthemarketeconomytendstobegreateramongyoungeradults,whichmayberelated,inpart,totheresistancetochangeofolderindividuals,whospentmuchoftheirlivesunderasocialistsystem
(EBRD2007)
.
Mediaisanessentialsourceofinformationaboutclimatechange,andmoreknowledgecaninfluenceconcernaboutclimatechange(Lokshinetal.2024).
Malkaetal.(2009)
reportthatintheUS,increasedknowledgeisassociatedwithgreaterconcernamongadultswhoidentifyas
4
Schwartz(1992)
definesself-enhancementascharacterizedbyanemphasisonthepursuitofone’sowninterestsanddominanceoverothers;self-transcendenceemphasizesconcernforthewelfareandinterestsofothers.
6
DemocratsorIndependentsbutnotamongRepublicans.
UdalovandWelfens(2021)
demonstratethatInternetuseispositivelyassociatedwithseveraldimensionsofenvironmentalconcern,
includingknowledgeandpro-environmentalbehaviors,inhigh-incomeandlow-incomecountries.
Diehletal.(2021)
findthatrelianceonsocialmediaisassociatedwithadecreasedclimateskepticism,basedonsurveydatafrom20countries.Atthesametime,themediacanalsobeasourceofclimatechangedisinformation
(Ejazetal.,2023)
.Thesepatternsarecrucialforunderstandingtherelationshipbetweenageandclimateactionbecauseyoungercohortstendtousedigitalcommunicationtoolsmorethanolderadultsdo
(SeifertandCotten2021)
.
3.Theoreticalframework
Westartfromtheassumptionthattheage-relatedvariationinsupportforclimatepoliciesisdeterminedbythelengthofexposuretoclimatechange,theintensityofclimatechangeimpactsonwellbeing,andtheeffectivenessofmitigationandadaptationmeasures.Theexpectedexposureoftheelderlytoclimatechangeisshorterthanthatofyoungerpeople,buttherisksfromtheeffectsofclimatechangeincreasewithageatanygiventime.
5
Olderdemographicgroupsareathigherriskofbeingaffectedbynaturaldisasterslikedroughts,floods,andhurricanes
(Harper2019)
.Comorbiditiesandfrailtyincreasetheadverseeffectsofairpollutionandexposuretohightemperaturesbyolderpeople
(Gambleetal.2016)
.
Asimpletheoreticalframeworkillustrateshowtheinterplaybetweenthelengthofexposuretoclimatechangeimpactsandtheintensityofsuchimpactsaffectsanindividual’sattitudestowardclimatechange.
ConsideranindividualwholivesforTperiods.Ineveryperiodt,shederivesutilityU(ct)fromconsumingctandfacesthecostofclimatechangeD(pt)causedbypollutionstockpt.FunctionUisincreasingandstrictlyconcaveinconsumption,thatis,U′>0,U′′<0,andfunctionDisincreasingandstrictlyconvexinpollutionstock,thatis,D′>0,D′′>0.TheassumptionthatDisconveximpliesthathigherpollutionstockcausesgreatermarginaldamagetoanindividual’swellbeing.Theoveralllifetimewelfareoftheindividualis
5Climatechangeisalsooneoftheleadingthreatstohealthandwellbeingofchildrenunderfive
(Zhangetal.2007)
.
7
(1)
whereristheindividual’sdiscountrateandktistheperceivedintensityofclimatechangeeffectonanindividual’swellbeing.
6
Thesizeofktdependsonmanyconsiderationsandislikelytovarywithage.Intheanalysis,weassumethatinearlylife,theintensityoftheeffectofpollutionontheindividual’swellbeingisk>0,andthatinthelastyearoflifeisθk,whereθ>1toreflectthattherisksfromandawarenessoftheimpactofclimatechangeincreasewithage.
Thepollutionstockgrowsatanexogenousratey.Ineachperiod,anindividualcantakecostlyclimatechangeactionattoslowtheaccumulationofthepollutionstockinthenextperiod.Thepollutionstockthenevolvesaccordingto:
Δpt+1≡pt+1?pt=ypt?ηat,(2)
whereηistheperceivedeffectivenessofclimatechangeactionat.Thesizeofηdependsonvariousfactors,suchastrustinthegovernmentandbeliefsinitsabilitytodeployresourcestowardeffectivemitigationoradaptationmeasures.Theinitialstockofpollutionp0isexogenouslygiven.AslongasΔpt+1>0,thepollutionstockgrows,sothenegativewelfareconsequencesofclimatechangeintensifyovertime.
Theindividualreceivesincomeytineachperiodwhichshetakesasgiven.Shecanborroworsaveatanexogenouslygivenratersubjecttotheconstraintthatanyoutstandingdebtmustberepaidattheendofherlife.Anindividual’soptimalchoicesofconsumptionandclimatechangeactionthusdependonthelifetimebudgetconstraint:
Withinthisframework,wecancomparetheoptimalconsumptionandclimatechangeactionsthatolderandyoungerindividualschoose.
Intheappendix,weconsidertheutilityoptimizationproblemsofanoldandayoungindividual.Theoldindividualhastwoperiodstolive;theyoungindividualhasthreeperiodstolive.Both
6Following
Long(1992),
fortractability,weassumethattheindividual’swelfareisadditivelyseparableinctandpt.
8
individualsformlifetimeplansforconsumption.Inperiod0,theyalsochoseclimatechangeaction,whichisthenapplicableforthedurationoftheirlife.Theindividual’soptimalclimatechangeactionshouldbeinterpretedasmakingthedesiredregularcontributions,suchastaxes,tocombatclimatechange.
Weshowthattheoptimalclimatechangeactionofanolderindividualcanexceedthatofayoungerindividualifthefollowingconditionsaremet.First,theimpactofclimatechangeonwellbeingintensifiessignificantlywithage(i.e.,θissufficientlyhigh).Second,individualsdiscountthefuturesufficientlystrongly–thatis,rissufficientlyhigh-sothatyoungpeoplearenottooconcernedaboutthehigherintensityofclimatechangeimpactsintheiroldage.Third,thepollutionstockgrowssufficientlyslowly-thatis,yissufficientlysmall-sothatinthefuture,youngindividualsdonotexpecttoliveinasignificantlyworseenvironmentthantheycurrentlydo.
Linkingthetheoreticalandempiricalmodels
Thetheoreticalmodelidentifiesthreeparametersgoverningtheimpactofageonwillingnesstopayforclimatechangepolicies.Thesearetheperceivedeffectivenessofgovernmentinmitigatingtheimpactofclimatechangeη,theperceivedintensityofclimatechangeeffectkt,andtheindividual’sdiscountrater.Becausetheseparametersarenotdirectlyobservable,weuseproxyvariablestoidentifytheirimpactsonrespondents’attitudestoclimatechangeandtheirwillingnesstopayhighertaxestosupportclimatechangeactions.
Inthetheoreticalmodel,theeffectofηonconcernsaboutclimatechangeandwillingnesstofinanceclimatechangepoliciesisambiguous,astheanalysisintheappendixshows.Asηincreases,theclimatechangeactionbecomesmoreeffective,promptingtheindividualtosubstituteawayfromconsumptiontoclimatechangeaction.Atthesametime,higherηmeansthattheindividualcanachievehigherutilitywiththesameincome,relaxingthebudgetconstraint.Thisincomeeffectpushespeopletoconsumemoreandspendlessonclimatechangeaction.Assubstitutionandincomeeffectsworkinoppositedirections,theoveralleffectofηisambiguous.
7
Inreality,thesizeofηmaydifferdependingonthespecificnatureoftheclimatechangemeasureinquestion.Furthermore,itwillalsodependontheindividuals’trustinthegovernmentandbeliefsinitsabilitytodeploytheseresourcestowardeffectivemitigationoradaptationmeasures
(OECD
7Similarintuitionexplainsthebackward-bendinglaborsupplycurve(e.g.,
Dickinson1999)
.
9
2022)
.Weusequestionsabouttrustingovernmentandbeliefsinfairnessasproxiesforthisparameter.
Severalfactorsmightaffecttheperceivedintensityofclimatechangeeffect(kt),includingage,gender,levelofeducation,andfamilycomposition.Thepastexposuretoadverseclimatechangeshockscouldalsoinfluencekt.Olderindividualsmayperceivehigherrisksoffutureclimatechangeimpactsdespiteshorterfutureexposure,astheyhavelivedlongerand,therefore,haveahigherprobabilityofhavingbeenexposedtoadverseclimateshocksinthepast.Morenuancedrelationscouldworkthroughdifferencesinthecapacitytoadapttoclimatechange.Ontheonehand,youngerpeoplearemoremobile,cantoleratetemperaturefluctuations,andcanmoreeasilyescapefromdisaster-affectedareas.Ontheotherhand,aswealthandsavingstendtopeakaroundretirementage
(Modigliani1976)
,olderpeopleareabletoinsureagainsttheimpactsofclimatechangeanddealwiththefinancialshocksofnaturaldisasters.
8
Weusehealthself-assessmentandinformationaboutpastexposuretoclimaticshockstoproxytheeffectofthisparameter.
Inthetheoreticalmodel,strongdiscountingofthefuture(higherr)increasestheasymmetrybetweenoldandyoungindividualsandmayleadtohigheroptimalinvestmentinclimate?changeactionforoldindividuals.Olderindividualsexperiencetheintensificationoftheimpactsofclimatechangesoonerandsodonotdiscountthemasmuchasyoungindividualsdo.Forasufficientlyhighr,youngpeoplearenottooconcernedaboutthehigherintensityofclimatechangeimpactsintheiroldage.Weapproximatethefuturediscussionraterwithresponsestoaquestionthatasksrespondentstoselectbetweenlessmoneynowandmoremoneyinamonth.
Willingnesstosupportclimatechangeactionscanbeconstrainedbyeitheralackofawarenessofclimatechangeimpacts,whichmayrecedewithage,orideologicalbeliefsthatmaybecorrelatedwithage.Politicalconservatism,whichhasbeenassociatedwithclimatechangeskepticism,ismoreprevalentamongoldercohorts.Butolderadultsmayhavegreaterconcernsaboutfuturegenerationsandexpressstrongerpro-socialgenerationalorientationcomparedtoyoungeradults
(Maxfieldetal.2014).
8Intheproposedtheoreticalframework,individualscanfreelyborrowagainsttheirfutureincome;inreality,uncollateralizedborrowingagainstfutureincomeislimited,sosavingsmatterfordeterminingcapacitytodealwithclimatechangeshocks.
10
Thetheoreticalframeworkmotivatesourestimationstrategy.Ourempiricalmodelestimatestherelationshipbetweenresponsestoclimatechangequestionsccicandageoftherespondentcontrollingforrespondent’scharacteristics:
ccic=βxic+YGic+θc+εic,(4)
where,xicisasetofindividualcharacteristicssuchastherespondent’sage,gender,highestlevelofeducation,maritalstatus,religiousaffiliation,indicatorsofmentalhealth,riskaversion,trustingovernment,mainsourcesofinformation,householdcomposition,andaproxyforhouseholdincome.Gicisavectorofregionalcharacteristicssuchastypeoflocation(urbanorrural).θcistime-invariantcountrycfixedeffect,andεicisaninnovationterm.
4.Thedata
Weusethelatest2023roundoftheLifeinTransitionSurvey(LiTS),implementedbytheEuropeanBankofReconstructionandDevelopment(EBRD)andtheWorldBank
(EBRD2023)
.ItcoversthetransitioneconomiesofEuropeandCentralAsiaandseveralcomparatorcountriesinWesternEurope,theMiddleEast,andNorthAfrica,includingatotalof38countries.Thesurveyincludedanationallyrepresentativesampleofaround1,000householdspercountry.
Theanalysisfocusesonclimatebeliefsandclimateactions.Beliefsaboutclimatechangearecapturedbythefollowingquestions:“Howconvincedareyoupersonallythatclimatechangeisreal?”and“Howconvincedareyoupersonallythatclimatechangeismanmade?”Responsesarerecordedona5-stepLikertscalerangingfrom“entirelyunconvinced”to“entirelyconvinced.”
Wedistinguishbetweenimpactsonone’sselfandimpactsaffectingthenextgeneration.Theformerisbasedonresponsestotheyes/noquestion“Doyouthinkclimatechangeseriouslyaffectsorwillseriouslyaffectyouduringyourlifetime?”,whilethelatterisbasedonresponsestothequestion“Doyouthinkclimatechangeseriouslyaffectsorwillseriouslyaffectthechildrenoftodayduringtheirlifetime?”.Weassesspastimpactsofclimatechangeusingthequestion,“Haveyoupersonallyexperienceddisruptionordamageduetoflooding,drought,orothernaturaldisasters?(Yes/No).”
Wecaptureclimateactionthroughquestionsconcerningsupportforgovernmentandpersonalactionintheclimatespace.Supportforgovernmentactionisbasedonresponsestothequestion
11
“Herearetwostatementspeop
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