Chapter 1 Introduction 緒論(現(xiàn)代語言學(xué))

1、Chapter 1 Introduction 緒論1. What is linguistics? 什么是語言學(xué)？1.1 definition 定義Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.語言學(xué)是對語言進行科學(xué)研究的學(xué)科。Languages in general 針對所有語言而言A scientific study of language is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to som

2、e general theory of language structure.語言進行科學(xué)地研究最根本的是要對語言材料進行系統(tǒng)的調(diào)查研究，并在語言結(jié)構(gòu)的一般理論指導(dǎo)下進行。The linguist has to do first is to study language facts, i.e. to see how language is actually used; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure.語言學(xué)家首先必須研究語言材料，即要觀察一般情況下語言的使用方法，繼而對語言的結(jié)構(gòu)具體地提出一些假設(shè)。

3、A linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.一套語言學(xué)理論是說明語言的本質(zhì)內(nèi)容以及這些語言是如何發(fā)揮作用的。1.2 The scope of linguistics 語言學(xué)的研究范疇The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applica

4、ble in any linguistic study.把語言學(xué)作為一個整體而進行的全面的語言學(xué)研究一般稱為普通語言學(xué)。它的研究對象主要是能夠應(yīng)用于所有語言研究的基本概念、理論、描述、模型和方法等。Language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets, so it is hardly possible for the linguists to deal with it all at once. They have to concentrate on one aspect of it at a time.語言是一種包含有

5、多個層次和方面的綜合體，所以語言學(xué)家們不可能一下子都能面面俱到，每一次只能集中研究其中的一個方面。What first drew the attention of the linguists were the sounds used in languages. This study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch of linguistics called phonetics.首先引起語言學(xué)家們注意的是語言使用中的聲音現(xiàn)象。這種對語言交際中聲音的研究最終促成了語言學(xué)的

6、第一個分支語音學(xué)的建立。Linguists became interested in how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication; they developed another branch of study related to sounds called phonology.語言學(xué)家們開始對交際中語音的組合規(guī)律及傳達意義的方式感興趣，這樣他們又建立了和語音相關(guān)的另外一個分支語系學(xué)。Morphology 形態(tài)學(xué)Syntax 句法學(xué)Semantics 語義學(xué)Pragmatics 語用學(xué)Socio

7、linguistics 社會語言學(xué)Psycholinguistics :心理語言學(xué)We as infants acquire our mother tongue. 小時候是怎么習(xí)得母語Applied linguistics 應(yīng)用語言學(xué)The emergence of a new teaching approach or method often follows the emergence of a new linguistic theory.一種新的教學(xué)理念或教學(xué)方法的出現(xiàn)總是和某種新的語言學(xué)理論相伴而生的。1.3 Some important distinctions in linguist

8、ics 語言學(xué)研究中的一些基本概念1.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive 規(guī)定性 與 描述性If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive ; Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.如果一種語言學(xué)的研究是對人們實際使用中的語言進行的描述和分析，那么這種研究就是描述性的;現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)則基本上都是描述性的。If it aims to lay down rules

9、 for “correct” behaviour, i.e., to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.如果某種研究的目的是在對所謂“正確的”行為制訂一些規(guī)則，即告訴人們他們應(yīng)該說什么，不應(yīng)該說什么，那么這種研究就是規(guī)定性的。1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic 共時性 與 歷時性The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic st

10、udy.對處于某一時間點的語言所作的描述叫做共時性研究。The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.對隨時間的推移而發(fā)生變化的語言所作的描述，叫做歷時性研究。1.3.3 Speech and writing 口頭語 與 書面語Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary , not the written.現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)比較看重的是口頭語言，而不是書面語言。In the past, traditional gramm

11、arians tended to over-emphasize the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.過去，傳統(tǒng)的語法學(xué)家們都有過分強調(diào)書面語重要性的傾向，這是由于書面語的相對恒定性。The writing system of any language is always a later invention.任何語言的書寫體系總是人們后來發(fā)明的。While quite a number of languages in the world today have both spoken and wr

12、itten forms.大多數(shù)語言既有口頭形式又有書面形式。1.3.4 Langue and parole 語言 和 言語 Saussure 索緒爾Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.語言指的是某一特定的語言社區(qū)中的所有成員所共有的那種抽象的語言系統(tǒng)，言語則指的是語言在實際應(yīng)用中的具體體現(xiàn)。Langue is the

13、set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, and parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.語言是語言使用者們必須恪守的一套語言習(xí)慣和規(guī)則，而言語則是指對這些習(xí)慣和規(guī)則的遵守和實際應(yīng)用。1.3.5 Competence and performance 語言能力 和 語言運用Chomsky 喬姆斯基Similar to Saussures distinction between l

14、angue and parole is the distinction between competence and performance.喬姆斯基提出了一對和語言言語相類似的概念，即語言能力和語言運用。Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.喬姆斯基的定義，能力是一個理想的語言使用者所具有的有

15、關(guān)其所使用語言規(guī)則的知識，運用則是指這種知識在語言交際過程中的實際運用。Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks that what linguists should study is the ideal speakers competence, not his performance.和索緒爾一樣，喬姆斯基也認為語言學(xué)家應(yīng)該研究的是說話者能力，而不是他對語言的實際應(yīng)用。2. What is language? 什么是語言？2.1 Definitions of language 語言的定義Chomskys definition: its purpose is to

16、 focus attention on the purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view.喬姆斯基的定義，其目的是強調(diào)語言純粹的結(jié)構(gòu)特征并且指出這種特征可以用精確地、數(shù)字的方法加以分析研究。Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.語言是用于人

17、類交際目的的一套任意的有聲符號系統(tǒng)。This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeares play“Romeo and Juliet ”: “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet ”莎士比亞戲劇<羅密歐與朱麗葉>中的名言“玫瑰換個名詞聞起來還是香的”就是對語言這種習(xí)慣性特征的最好證明。2.2 Design features (Charles Hocker 構(gòu)想的) 語言的區(qū)別性特征 Desi

18、gn features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.區(qū)別性特征指的是人類語言和其他動物的交際系統(tǒng)區(qū)別開來的那些特征。1)Arbitrariness 語言的武斷性（任意性）There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.聲音和意義之間沒有任何邏輯關(guān)系。A good example is the fact that different s

19、ounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.最好的一個例子就是不同的語言里使用不同的聲音來代替相同的事物。It is not entirely arbitrary. There are words in every language that imitate natural sounds, such as rumble, crash, cackle, and bang in English.并不全是任意的，每種語言里面都有直接模仿自然界聲音的詞匯。2)Productivity 語言的創(chuàng)造性This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.說明了他們?yōu)槭裁茨軌騽?chuàng)造和理解無限多的句子，甚至包括他們以前從沒有聽過的句子。 3)Duality 語言的雙重性This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables