英語寫作之Paragraph.

1、Part Four The ParagraphI. Criteria of an effective paragraphII. Steps in writing a paragraphIII. Ways of developing paragraphsWhat is a paragraph?nA paragraph is a unit of thought.nParagraphs vary in length.Criteria of an Effective Paragraph nunifiedncoherent nwell developedUnityCoherenceTransition

2、/ DevelopmentUnitynA paragraph is a component part of an essay. Each paragraph has only one theme, so what is written should be closely related to the theme.nThe central theme is usually summarized in the topic sentence. nPlace of topic sentence: beginning, middle, end, implied.Please identify the t

3、opic sentence in each paragraphnSample 1 nCalifornians and New Englanders are both American. They speak the same language and abide by the same laws. However, they are very different in their ways of life. Mobility has made a great impression on the culture of Californians, lack of mobility is the m

4、ark of the customs and morality of New Englanders.n Sample 2 n Sample 3BeginningEndImpliedMiddleHow to write a good topic sentence? 1. A topic sentence should be neither too general nor too specific. If it is too general, the reader cannot tell exactly what the paragraph is going to discuss. If it i

5、s too specific, the writer may not have anything left to write about in the rest of the paragraph.主題句既不能太籠統(tǒng)，也不能太詳細。主題句既不能太籠統(tǒng)，也不能太詳細。 前者會前者會使要討論的內(nèi)容不明確，后者會影響開展下文。使要討論的內(nèi)容不明確，后者會影響開展下文。Example: American food is tasteless and greasy(油膩的) because Americans use too many canned, frozen and prepackaged foods

6、 and because they fry everything in oil or butter. American food is terrible. American food is tasteless and greasy. Too specificGoodToo general 2. Do not involve too many related ideas in your topic sentence; if you do, your paragraph will not be unified.主題句中不應(yīng)包含過多的意思，以免影響段落的主題句中不應(yīng)包含過多的意思，以免影響段落的統(tǒng)一

7、性。統(tǒng)一性。nSan Francisco is famous for its temperate climate, its many tourist attractions and its cosmopolitan(世界性的) atmosphere. San Francisco is famous for its temperate climate / many tourist attractions / cosmopolitan atmosphere. Too many ideasGoodHomeworknTask 3 Supply a topic sentence for each par

8、agraph.CoherencenThe sentences in a paragraph should be arranged in a clear, logical order. nA paragraph is coherent when each sentence in it naturally leads to the next sentence in explaining and developing the central idea.nSample 4TransitionnGood transitions should be used to make one sentence ru

9、n smoothly to anothernWays of transition:TransitionnWays of transition:n using parallel structuresn repeating words or word groupsn using pronouns to refer to nouns in preceding sentencesn being consistent in the person and number of nouns and pronouns, and the tense of verbsn using transitional exp

10、ressionsn Details on Page 68Transitional wordsnAddition: also, again, as well as, besides, coupled with, furthermore, in addition, likewise, moreover, coupled with, together withnConsequence: accordingly, as a result, consequently, for this reason, for this purpose, hence, otherwise, so then, subseq

11、uently, therefore, thus, whereforenGeneralizing: as a rule, as usual, for the most part, generally, generally speaking, ordinarily, usuallynExemplifying: for example, for instance, such as, markedly, namely, including, for one thing, illustrated with, in this casenEmphasis: above all, chiefly, espec

12、ially, specifically, with attention to, particularly, in particularnDirection: here, there, over there, beyond, nearly, opposite, under, above, to the left, to the right, in the distancenException: aside from, besides, except, except for, excluding, exclusive of, other than, outside ofnRestatement:

13、in essence, in other words, namely, that is, that is to say, in short, in brief, to put it differentlynContrast and Comparison: comparatively, identically, likewise, similarly, in contrast, conversely, instead, on one hand, on the other hand, on the contrary, rather, yet, but, however, still, nevert

14、helessnSequence: at first, first of all, to begin with, in the first place, at the same time, for now, for the time being, the next step, in turn, later on, meanwhile, next, then, soon, the meantime, later, while, earlier, simultaneously, afterward, finallynSummarizing: all in all, all things consid

15、ered, briefly speaking, by and large, in any case, in any event, in brief, in conclusion, on the whole, in short, in summary, in the final analysis, in the long run, to sum up, to summarizeSteps in Writing a ParagraphStep 1: Give a topic sentence (Think of the theme or main idea, and express it in a

16、 complete sentence)Step 2: Think of the details or examples or facts that may be used to support or explain the main idea.Step 3: Work out an outline to arrange the details or examples or facts in logical order.Three main parts of a paragraphnGO=Topic SentencenContinue=Supporting Sentence nStop=Conc

17、luding SentenceWhat kind of health problems does cigarette smoking cause？ nWe all know that cigarette smoking is a dangerous habit because it causes health problemsDoctors say it can be a direct cause of cancer of the lungs and throat and can also contribute to cancer of other organs In addition， it

18、 can bring about other health problems such as heart and lung diseases It is clearly identified as one of the chief causes of death in our societyn My mother has passed along to me certain rules for getting along with others. Dont argue with parents; they will think you dont love them. Dont argue wi

19、th children; they will think themselves victimized. Dont argue with spouses; they will think you are a tiresome mate. Dont argue with strangers; they will think you are not friendly. My mothers rules, in fact, can be summed up in two words: Dont argue.What is the best topic sentence? 1. Mexico is an

20、 interesting country. 2. His many reforms made Mexico a fairer, more modern society. 3. Benito (1806-1872) is a national hero in Mexico. n主題（a topic）作者的觀點（an opinion or statement）nThe benefits of participating in sports are numerous.nMy favorite program is “Friend”.nI enjoy the programs about real p

21、eople and real experience. nThe two purposes of a topic sentence: 1. to state the topic, to give the main idea2. to grab the readers attention so the reader wants to go on People view money differently. Some people consider money the root of all evil.Features of the topic sentence1. it shapes the en

22、tire paragraph by defining its contents 2. it establishes the paragraphs organization3. it has many forms n1. 主題句應(yīng)具有概括性，而擴展句需要具體。nEach program will focus on a particular friend who can be either a celebrity or an everyday person. nFriend is a very popular talk show. nThe cost of making fake products

23、 is usually lower than real ones. nWe have to wonder why fake products are so prevalent.n2.主題句應(yīng)是一種觀點而不是一個具體的事實。nMany college students do part-time job. nMany college students do part-time jobs for various reasons.nMany people buy pirated products because the price is much lower than legal ones. nThe

24、 reason why people buy pirated products is various.Common forms for paragraphn1）肯定句（Affirmative Sentence）nExample： The need for wildlife protection is greater now than ever beforen2）反詰句（Rhetorical Sentence）nExample： How do you think people will solve the problem of wildlife protection？n3）不完整句（Fragme

25、nts）nExample： And the workingman？nSupply a topic sentence for each of the following paragraphs:n_ Red, for example, is the color of fire, heat, blood and life. People say red is an exciting and active color. They associate red with a strong feeling like anger. Red is also used for signs of danger, s

26、uch as stop signs and fire engines. Orange is the bright, warm color of leaves in autumn. People say orange is a lively color. They associate orange with happiness. Yellow is the color of sunlight. People say it is a cheerful color. They associate yellow, too, with happiness. Green is the cool color

27、 of grass in spring. People say it is a refreshing color. n_ It is the road which determines the sites of many cities and the growth and nourishment of all. It is the road which controls the development of strategies and fixes the sites of battles. It is the road that gives its frame-work to all eco

28、nomic development. It is the road which is the channel of all trade, and, what is more important, of all ideas. In its most humble function it is a necessary guide without which progress from place to place would be a ceaseless experiment; it is a sustenance without which organized society would be

29、impossible, thus the road moves and controls all history.Supporting Sentencen 主題句的后面必須要跟上幾個支持句用來進一步闡述、解釋、說明主題句。可以用具體的事例、證據(jù)或進一步論證的手法來達到支持主題句的目的。n 一個段落的支持句有主要支持句一個段落的支持句有主要支持句(major supporting sentences)和次要支持句和次要支持句(minor supporting sentences)之分。之分。n例1：(主題句) There are several factors affecting climate

30、. (推展句1)One factor is the mount of sunlight received. (推展句2)Altitude, or the height above sea level, also determines climate. (推展句3)The oceans have an effect on the climate of adjacent land. (推展句4)In addition, climate is influenced by the general circulation of the atmosphere.n(主題句)I dont teach beca

31、use teaching is easy for me. (主要推展句1)Teaching is the most difficult of the various ways I have attempted to earn my living: mechanic, carpenter, writer. (主要推展句2)For me, teaching is a red-eye, sweaty-palm, sinking-stomach profession. (次要推展句1)Red-eye, because I never feel ready to teach no matter how

32、late I stay up preparing. (次要推展句2)Sweaty-palm, because Im always nervous before I enter the classroom, sure that I will be found out for the fool that I am. (次要推展句3)Sinking-stomach, because I leave the classroom an hour later convinced that I was even more boring than usual.習作評析Can Money Buy Happine

33、ss 有人認為金錢是幸福之本（source of happiness）也有人認為金錢是萬惡之源（root of all evil）1.我的看法（my opinion） Some say that society today is based on money. There is no (主題句主題句)question that money is important in our lives. People view （主題句）（主題句） （轉(zhuǎn)折句）（轉(zhuǎn)折句）money differently. Some people consider money a source of (主題句主題句)hap

34、piness. To them, money is everything. They dream of （主要支持句）（主要支持句） （次要支持句）（次要支持句）luxury homes, clothes, jewelry, etc. In other words, they （次要支持句）（次要支持句）dream of a luxurious lifestyle. They cannot imagine life （次要支持句）（次要支持句）without money and material things.Philately is an interesting hobbynThe outl

35、ine is:n1) There are beautiful pictures on postage stamps;n2) There are portraits of historical figures on them;n3)It is always a delight to get a stamp I have never seen before;n4) I can learn something by looking at the stamps I have collected. nPhilately is an interesting hobby. Every time I open

36、 my albums and look at the stamps Ive collected over the years, I learn something new. On many of them are printed drawings or pictures of rare birds, animals, trees or flowers. Under a magnifying glass they look very beautiful, and they help to increase my knowledge of nature. On other stamps there

37、 are portraits of historical figures, such as Qu Yuan and Dr. Sun Yatsen, George Washington and Chester W. Nimits. Whenever I see an unfamiliar name, I will try to find some information about the person by consulting an encyclopedia. In this way I have come to know something about quite a few people

38、 who are famous for one reason or another. Some of my friends and relatives who know I am interested in stamps often show me used envelopes. If I see a stamp which I have never seen before or I havent got yet, I will ask them to give it to me, and it seems that they are always kind enough to oblige

39、me. It is always a delight to add a new stamp to my collection, and the more stamps I have, the more interested I am in philately. Student Why is travel becoming more and more popular? What are the advantages of travel?nTravel is beneficial to us in at least three ways. (topic sentence)nFirst, by tr

40、avelling we can enjoynSecond, we will meet and see when we travel. nThird, travel will not only help us , but also will help us . nWith all these advantages, . Advantages of Travel Travel is beneficial to us in at least three ways. First, by travelling we can enjoy the beautiful scenery in different

41、 places. We will see with our own eyes many places read of in books, and visit some famous cities and scenic spots. Second, we will meet people with different interests and see strange and different things when we travel. We can get ideas of the conditions and customs of other people, taste differen

42、t foods and local flavors if we like. In this way, we can understand how differently other people live. Third, travel will not only help us gain knowledge of geography and history and other knowledge, but also will help us keep healthy and make us less narrow-minded. Travel does benefit us both ment

43、ally and physically. With all these advantages, its no wonder that travel is becoming more and more popular. Exercise Develop the following into a paragraph.The police department can help people to deal with many kinds of problems.The police can also help in medical emergencies.1.Every city has a sp

44、ecial telephone number for police department.Ways of Developing ParagraphsDevelopment by TimeDevelopment by ProcessDevelopment by SpaceDevelopment by Example or GeneralizationDevelopment by Comparison and ContrastDevelopment by Cause and EffectDevelopment by ClassificationDevelopment by DefinitionDe

45、velopment by a Combination of MethodsDevelopment by TimenTo describe things in order of time: earlier things are mentioned before later things, the first thing first and the last thing last. nIt is also called chronological sequencing. nWords & Phrases (P73)HomeworknWrite a paragraph about your

46、growth - developed by time, try to combine your sentences with when, before, after, later, then, during, since, now, (no less than 150 words)Development by Process 程序法nThe steps which you used to explain how something is done must occur one after another, the exact order in which they are carried ou

47、t is most important.n程序法是按事情發(fā)生的步驟的先后順序進程序法是按事情發(fā)生的步驟的先后順序進行敘述的，目的是使讀者清楚地了解整個行敘述的，目的是使讀者清楚地了解整個事情發(fā)生的全過程。事情發(fā)生的全過程。nWords & Phrases (P76)Sample 9First, . Then. Next, Then. Then.nYesterday, We really had a hard time getting Peter out of the well he had fallen into. First we fashioned a rope by linkin

48、g our belts together. Then we lowered it to Peter, telling him to grasp the end. After he had hold of the belt-rope, we began to pull him slowly, inch by inch, out of the well. During his ascent, no one dared speak a word. Finally we could grasp his arms, and with a shout of relief, we pulled him ou

49、t onto the grassy bank. Development by Space nTo decide on the order in which to name the different parts or details. nTo find out the space relationships between the things we are going to describe and arrange our description accordingly. nWords & Phrases (P78)Sample 12 In the middle of the rec

50、tangular-shaped courtyard stood three magnolia trees, A little girl among them, Under one of the trees .In front of another tree. At one end of the courtyard.At the opposite end rectangular magnolia tree hop bud petal flourishing limb sniff木蘭樹花蕾，蓓蕾花瓣聞、嗅、吸繁茂的樹枝矩形，矩形的跳躍nThe worst accident I even saw i

51、nvolved a school bus and several other vehicles. A small pickup truck（敞篷小貨車） had been travelling on one of the busier streets in the city, and a school bus was right behind the truck. Suddenly, a taxi in front of the truck came to a complete stop. With brakes squealing, the truck crashed into the ba

52、ck of the taxi. The driver of the bus couldnt avoid the truck, so the bus ended up on top of it. As a result of the impact, the passenger in the truck was thrown from the vehicle into the middle of the road. The driver of the truck was trapped inside the cab（駕駛室）, which was wedged under the front of

53、 the bus. The scene was so horrible that it gave me nightmares for weeks. Development by Example or Generalization舉例歸納舉例歸納nExamples or illustrations make a general statement specific and easy to understand.nVivid illustrations light up abstract ideas and make them clear, interesting, memorable, or c

54、onvincing.nIllustrations may be a single example or a series of examples.nWords & Phrases (P82)nFrom the general to the specific: by examples or illustrations. Sample 14nFrom the specific to the general Sample 17Development by Comparison and Contrast比較和對比比較和對比/對照對照nA comparison points out the si

55、milarities between two or more persons or things of the same class. A contrast points out the differences between two or more persons or things of the same class.nIn practice, comparison and contrast often appear together.nWords & Phrases （P88)Comparison 比較比較n A nation, like a person, has a body

56、a body that must be fed and clothed and housed, invigorated and rested, in a manner that measures up to the objectives of our time. A nation, like a person, has a minda mind that must be kept informed and alert, that must know itself, that understands the hopes and the needs of its neighborsall the

57、other nations that live within the narrowing circles of the world. A nation, like a person, has something deeper, something more permanent, something larger than the sum of all its parts. It is that something which matters most to its future and calls forth the most sacred guarding of its present. C

58、ontrast 對比對比nPeople at home and abroad have voiced different opinions about birth. On the one hand, most people say that we should turn to strict birth control as we are approaching the limit of the number of people the nation can support adequately. On the other hand, others argue that, if birth co

59、ntrol is imposed on the population, the future of the Chinese would be seriously endangered. They think that very intelligent people would be more likely to have fewer children, and this would bring about a lowering of the general level of intelligence in the population.Two ways of organizing paragr

60、aphs of comparison and contrast. 1. block comparison / block contrast (整體） examine one thing thoroughly and then examine the other. 2. alternating comparison / alternating contrast （交替) examine two things at the same time, discussing them point by point. nThere are many differences between college and high school in