〓用英語(yǔ)描述疾病〓(學(xué)醫(yī)的出國(guó)的看美劇的)必備學(xué)習(xí)

1、美式論文、報(bào)告寫(xiě)作技巧 編者按：美式教育的特點(diǎn)即是課程內(nèi)容強(qiáng)調(diào)學(xué)生參與及創(chuàng)新運(yùn)用，因此，報(bào)告便成了常見(jiàn)的考核學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)成果的方式，比如實(shí)驗(yàn)報(bào)告、學(xué)期報(bào)告、專(zhuān)題報(bào)告、研究報(bào)告及論文（含畢業(yè)論文）等。研究生presentation 及 seminar 的機(jī)會(huì)更是占很大的比重，有些甚至占學(xué)期成績(jī)很大比例。如何完成報(bào)告、論文同時(shí)得到良好的成績(jī)，是本文提供給有志留學(xué)的有心人參考的目的。 美國(guó)大學(xué)生由於自小已養(yǎng)成自動(dòng)尋找答案習(xí)慣，在啟發(fā)式的教育環(huán)境下，寫(xiě)報(bào)告、論文對(duì)他們來(lái)說(shuō)比較不陌生，雖然專(zhuān)業(yè)知識(shí)上美國(guó)學(xué)生不見(jiàn)得比外籍學(xué)生強(qiáng)，但是表達(dá)能力由於自小培養(yǎng)，加上英語(yǔ)能力的優(yōu)勢(shì)，常比外籍學(xué)生在報(bào)告、論文方面有較隹的

2、利基。反之中國(guó)學(xué)生比較缺乏報(bào)告寫(xiě)作的訓(xùn)練，因此如果在留學(xué)過(guò)程中無(wú)法適應(yīng)美式教育會(huì)比較辛苦，其實(shí)論文、報(bào)告的寫(xiě)作要領(lǐng)其實(shí)不難，只要把握技巧就可水到渠成。 通常論文由篇首(Preliminaries)，本文(Texts)以及參考資料(References)三部分構(gòu)成；而這三大部分各自?xún)?nèi)容如下： (一) 篇首： 封面(Title) 序言(Preface) 謝詞(Acknowledge) 提要(Summary) 目錄(Tables and Appendixes) (二) 本文： 引言(Introduction) 主體，含篇(Part)、章(Chapter)、節(jié)(Section) 、以及注釋 (Foot

3、notes) (三)參考資料： 參考書(shū)目(References or Bibliography) 附錄資料(Appendix)。 進(jìn)行論文或報(bào)告寫(xiě)作之前，先要確定想要表達(dá)的主題，主題確定后，將其具體表達(dá)，即為題目。題目可以提供研究者： 一.研究的方向 二.研究的范圍 三.資料搜集的范圍 四.預(yù)期研究成果 通常在確定題目之後就開(kāi)始找資料從事研究，建議在找資料之前最好去問(wèn)教授有哪些參考資料來(lái)源可供參考引用。構(gòu)思為確定寫(xiě)作大綱或 Proposal 的先前步驟， 大綱是論文、報(bào)告的骨干， Proposal 是研究的架構(gòu)、流程及范圍的說(shuō)明書(shū)。如何構(gòu)思大綱或Proposal為論文、報(bào)告寫(xiě)作前的必要準(zhǔn)備工作

4、。好的論文或研究報(bào)告，要基于在完整、詳實(shí)的資料上，而參考資料除了和教授商借之外，最主要的來(lái)源就是圖書(shū)館了，一般參考資料來(lái)源可分成教科書(shū)或手冊(cè)、政府機(jī)構(gòu)的報(bào)告、科技或商業(yè)方面的雜志，及會(huì)議性質(zhì)的資料。此外現(xiàn)代的電腦資料庫(kù)也可幫助收集資料，在國(guó)外可利用學(xué)校的電腦連線(xiàn)資料庫(kù)尋找自己需要的資料。當(dāng)一切準(zhǔn)備就緒，即可開(kāi)始著手寫(xiě)報(bào)告，一般報(bào)告還分大報(bào)告如期末、專(zhuān)題等報(bào)告，及小報(bào)告如 Seminar 式的報(bào)告。 就算是小報(bào)告，也至少應(yīng)含 (一)TITLE PAGES ：包含主題名稱(chēng)、作者、日期 (二)Summary： 即主要的結(jié)論 (三)Introduction：包括理論背景及內(nèi)容 (四)Technical

5、 Sections：是論文的主體，為最重要的部份應(yīng)再細(xì)分為 幾個(gè)片斷。 (五)Conclusions：即扼要的結(jié)論 (六)Appendixes：復(fù)雜公式的導(dǎo)引及叁考資料和電腦程式的報(bào)表可附加在 此項(xiàng) 美式報(bào)告的撰寫(xiě)通常要打字，兩行式，行間若有未拼完的字要以音節(jié)來(lái)連接。寫(xiě)報(bào)告通常需要用到電腦，如有計(jì)算數(shù)字統(tǒng)計(jì)圖表的需求，也常會(huì)用到程式軟體如PASCAL、LOTUS，統(tǒng)計(jì)分析軟體如SAS，也是不可或缺的，電腦繪圖在今日已成為工商界及學(xué)術(shù)界的重要工具，文書(shū)處理更是最基本的要求，因此Word for Window、Powerpoint、Excel便成了頗受歡迎的工具。此外在英文語(yǔ)法、文法上的潤(rùn)飾與修改

6、，如能請(qǐng)老美幫忙會(huì)比較好。 論文、報(bào)告完成后有時(shí)會(huì)需要做解說(shuō)(Presentation)，用英文來(lái)講演對(duì)中國(guó)人來(lái)說(shuō)算是一大挑戰(zhàn)，通常課堂講演時(shí)間為十五分鐘到三十分鐘，若是論文囗試則至少一小時(shí)。投影機(jī)及麥克風(fēng)的使用對(duì)講演的效果有很大幫助，正式講演前多預(yù)習(xí)幾次，時(shí)間宜控制適中，上臺(tái)時(shí)忌諱低頭拿著報(bào)告照念，需留意聽(tīng)眾的反應(yīng)，切中主題，避免太多數(shù)字的導(dǎo)引。用英語(yǔ)描述疾?。▽W(xué)醫(yī)的、出國(guó)的、看美劇的) 來(lái)源： 艾美語(yǔ)的日志 -插播：艾美語(yǔ)此校內(nèi)帳號(hào)好友已滿(mǎn)，歡迎加本人特別好友中的艾美語(yǔ)：同步更新-(1) 一般病情:He feels headache, nausea and vomiting. (他覺(jué)得頭痛

7、、惡心和想吐。)He is under the weather. (他不舒服，生病了。)He began to feel unusually tired. (他感到反常的疲倦。)He feels light-headed. (他覺(jué)得頭暈。)She has been shut-in for a few days. (她生病在家?guī)滋炝恕?Her head is pounding. (她頭痛。)His symptoms include loss of appetite, weight loss, excessive fatigue, fever and chills. (他的癥狀包括沒(méi)有食欲、體重減

8、輕、非常疲倦、發(fā)燒和發(fā)冷。)He feels exhausted or fatigued most of the time. (他大部份時(shí)間都覺(jué)得非常疲倦。)He has been lacking in energy for some time. (他感到虛弱有段時(shí)間了。)He feels drowsy, dizzy and nauseated. (他覺(jué)得昏昏欲睡，頭暈?zāi)垦：拖胪隆?He feels as though everything around him is spinning. (他感到周?chē)臇|西都在打轉(zhuǎn)。)He has noticed some loss of hearing. (

9、他發(fā)覺(jué)聽(tīng)力差些。)She has some pains and itching around her eyes. (她眼睛四周又痛又癢。)(2) 傷風(fēng)感冒：He has been coughing up rusty or greenish-yellow phlegm. (他咳嗽帶有綠黃色的痰。)His eyes feel itchy and he has been sneezing. (他眼睛發(fā)癢，而且一直在打噴嚏。)He has a fever, aching muscles and hacking cough. (hacking = constant) (他有發(fā)燒，筋骨酸痛和常?？人?。)H

10、e coughed with sputum and feeling of malaise. (malaise = debility) (他咳嗽有濃痰，而且覺(jué)得很虛弱。)He gets a cold with a deep hacking cough. (他傷風(fēng)咳嗽。)He has a headache, aching bones and joints. (他頭痛，骨頭、關(guān)節(jié)也痛。)He has a persistent cough. (他不停地在咳。)He has bouts of uncontrollable coughing. (他一陣陣的咳嗽，難以控制。)He has hoarse an

11、d has lost his voice sometimes. (他聲音嘶啞，有時(shí)失聲。)He has a sore throat and a stuffy nose. (他嗓子疼痛而且鼻子不通。)His breathing is harsh and wheezy. (他呼吸時(shí)，有氣喘似的呼哧呼哧作響。)He has a stabbing pain that comes on suddenly in one or both temples. (有時(shí)突然間太陽(yáng)穴刺痛。)He has a runny nose, sneezing or a scratchy throat. (他流鼻水，打噴嚏和喉嚨

12、沙啞。)(3) 女性疾?。篠he has noticed one lump in her breast. (她發(fā)覺(jué)乳房有個(gè)腫塊。)There is a hard, swollen lump on her right breast. (她右乳房有腫塊。)Her left breast is painful and swollen. (她左乳房疼痛且腫大。)She has heavy bleeding with her periods. (她月經(jīng)來(lái)的很多。)Her vaginal discharge is white or greenish-yellow and unpleasant smelli

13、ng. (她陰道分泌物帶白色或綠黃色，而且氣味不好。)She has noticed occasional spotting of blood between periods. (在月經(jīng)來(lái)的前后，她有時(shí)也發(fā)覺(jué)有滴滴達(dá)達(dá)的流血。)She has some bleeding after intercourse. (性交后有出血。)She feels some vaginal itching. (她感到陰部發(fā)癢。)She has painful periods and abnormal vaginal discharge. (她月經(jīng)來(lái)時(shí)疼痛，而且陰道有不正常的分泌物。)(4) 手腳疾病：His bo

14、th hands and feet ache all over. (他兩手兩腳都很酸痛。)He has pain on the sole of his feet. (他腳底很痛。)There is a wart-like lump on the sole of right foot. (我右腳底有個(gè)像肉疣般的硬塊。)His ankles look puffy and they pit when he presses them with his finger.(pit = small dent form；句里的 they 和 them 都是指 ankles)(他的足踝好象腫了，用手按，就有小坑痕

15、。)The pain in his left foot is accompanied by redness and swelling. (左腳酸痛，并有紅腫。)The joints near his fingernails and knuckles look swollen. (指頭和指節(jié)旁邊的關(guān)節(jié)，似乎有腫大。)He has numbness and tingling in his hands and fingers. (他的手和指頭感到麻木和刺痛。)His legs become painful following strenuous exercise. (激烈運(yùn)動(dòng)后，他的腿就痛。)His

16、 knee is misshapen or unable to move. (他的膝蓋有點(diǎn)畸形，也不能動(dòng)。)There are some swellings in his armpit. (他的腋窩腫大。)He is troubled with painful muscles and joints. (他的筋骨和關(guān)節(jié)都痛。)She is troubled by the pains in the back and shoulders. (她的后背和肩膀都痛。)His knee has been bothering him for some time. (他的膝蓋不舒服，已有一段時(shí)間了。)(5)

17、睡眠不好：He is sleeping poorly.（他睡不好）He has difficulty in sleeping, inability to concentrate.（他不易入睡，也難集中精神。）It is usually hard for her to fall asleep when she goes to bed at night.（她晚上就寢，很難入睡。）He wakes during the night or early morning and finds it difficult to fall asleep again.（他晚間或清早醒來(lái)后，再也不能入睡。）He ha

18、s nightmares occasionally.（他有時(shí)做噩夢(mèng)。）(6) 男性疾?。篐e urinates more frequently than usual.（他小便比平時(shí)多。）He has difficulty controlling his bladder.（他很難控制小便。）(bladder：膀胱)There are some lumps on his testicles. （他的睪丸有些硬塊。）He has had burning or pain when he urinates.（他小便時(shí)感到發(fā)燙和疼痛。）He is passing less urine than usual

19、.（他小便比平時(shí)少。）He has had painless swelling in his scrotum.（他的陰囊有不痛的腫大。）He feels lack of interest in sex.（他自覺(jué)對(duì)性的興趣大減。）He has difficulty starting his urine flow.（他小便不暢通。）His urine stream is very weak and slow.（他小便流動(dòng)得很慢很弱。）He dribbles a little urine after he has finished urinating.（他小便后，還會(huì)有少量零星地滴下。）He has

20、 had some discharge from his penis.（他的陰莖排出一些流膿。）His urine is cloudy and it smells strong.（他的小便混濁，而且氣味不好。）He has a dull heavy ache in the crotch.（他的胯部感到隱痛。）He has a small leakage of urine when he coughs or sneezes.（他咳嗽或打噴嚏時(shí)，會(huì)有點(diǎn)泄尿。）He has trouble urinating.（他小便有困難。）(7) 呼吸方面：His breathing has become in

21、creasingly difficult.（他呼吸越來(lái)越困難。）He has to breathe through his mouth.（他要用口呼吸。）He is short of breath, even when he has not been exercising, he is breathless.（他喘氣；即使不運(yùn)動(dòng)，他也是上氣不接下氣。）His cough is more like wheezing.（他的咳嗽有呼哧呼哧的響聲。）His cough is dry, producing no phlegm.（他是干咳，沒(méi)有痰。）He has coughed up blood.（他咳

22、嗽有血。）His nose stuffed up when he had a cold.（他感冒時(shí)鼻子就不通。）He coughs up a lot of phlegm (thick spit) on most days.（他多半時(shí)間咳出濃濃的痰。）He has a feeling of tightness in the chest or a feeling that he is suffocating.（他胸部覺(jué)得悶悶的，好象透不過(guò)氣來(lái)。）(8)口腔毛?。篐e has pain in his teeth or jaw. (他的牙齒和下巴疼痛。)He has some problems wit

23、h his teeth. (他牙齒有問(wèn)題。)The tooth hurts only when he bites down on it. (他咬東西時(shí)，牙齒就痛。)His gums are red and swollen. (他的牙床紅腫。)His tongue is red and sore all over. (他的舌頭到處紅和痛。)His breath smells bad and he has a foul taste in his mouth. (他口里有怪味。)His gums do bleed. (他牙床有出血。)He has some sore swellings on his

24、 gum or jaw. (他的牙床和下巴腫痛。)He has sore places on or around the lip. (他的嘴唇和周?chē)己芡础?There are cracks at the corners of his mouth. (他的嘴巴角落破了。)There are some discolored areas inside on his tongue. (他舌頭里邊有些地方顏色怪怪的。)(9) 腸胃毛?。篐e has a bloated, uncomfortable feeling after meal. (他飯后肚子覺(jué)得脹脹的，很不舒服。)He has bouts o

25、f abdominal pain. (他有一陣陣的肚痛。)He feels bloated in his abdominal area. (他感到肚子脹脹的。) (注：脹脹的，像puff up，但不是真正的腫swell up。)The pain is mainly in the lower (upper) right part of the abdomen. (痛是在肚子下半部。)He has nausea and vomiting. (他有惡心和嘔吐。)It is difficult or painful for him to swallow. (他吞下食物時(shí)會(huì)痛。)He has passe

26、d more gas than usual. (他放比平常多。)He has been constipated for a few days. (他便秘了好幾天。)He suffers pains when he moves his bowels. (他大便時(shí)很痛。)He has some bleeding from his rectum. (他的肛門(mén)出血。)He has noticed some blood in his bowel movements. (他發(fā)覺(jué)大便時(shí)有些血。)His bowel movements are pale, greasy and foul smelling. (他大便呈灰白色，含油脂的惡臭。)His bowel movemen