StephanDahl交際與文化轉(zhuǎn)型-文化的多樣性、全球化以及文化的聚合教程文件

1、Good is good, but better carries it.精益求精，善益求善。StephanDahl交際與文化轉(zhuǎn)型-文化的多樣性、全球化以及文化的聚合-TableofContentsINDEXOFTABLESANDFIGURES.3PREFACEANDACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.4INTRODUCTION.5DETERMINANTSOFCULTUREANDIDENTITY8WHATISCULTURE?8THENATIONALCHARACTER/BASICPERSONALITY.10PERCEPTION.10TIMECONCEPTS11SPACECONCEPTS.13THIN

2、KING13logicandprelogic.13inductiveanddeductive.13abstractandconcrete.13alphabeticalandanalphabetical.14LANGUAGE.14NON-VERBALCOMMUNICATION15Kinesics.15Proxemics.16Appearance.16Posture.16Oculesics.17Haptics,tacesics.17Paralanguage17SymbolismandPassiveNon-verbalCommunication18VALUES18BEHAVIOUR:NORMS,RU

3、LES,MANNERS,ROLES.20SOCIALGROUPINGSANDRELATIONSHIPS.20Axiomsoftheprevioussection.21CULTUREACQUISITIONANDMODIFICATION.22Axiomsoftheprevioussection.23TRENDSINCROSS-BORDERANDINTERCULTURALCOMMUNICATION.24GLOBALBUSINESS25FreeTradeandCommonMarkets.25ForeignDirectInvestment,TNCs,Oligopolisation.25Capitalis

4、mandWesternCultureExport.26POLITICALANDSOCIO-ECONOMICALCHANGES26FromcolonialpowertoneoliberalEurope26EuropeanIntegration.27RevoltandSocialChange:May1968.27Extensionofpower:thefallofFranco.29ExtendingtheneoliberalworldviewtotheEast29Yugoslavia.30NewDemocrats,NewLabourandNeueMitte.30Westernpoliticsand

5、commercialinfluence.31Conclusion32MEDIATRENDS.32Influenceofthemediaonsociety.32DeclineofthepublicbroadcastinginEurope33Theemergenceofcommercialbroadcasting.34Commercial,globalmediacontent.35Co-operationandglobaldistribution.36Diversificationintomultimediaservices37Cinemaglobalisation.37Localisationo

6、ffocus.38Resistancetowardsglobalisation.39Globalcontent,producedlocally40Conclusion41THEINTERNET41TheEmergenceoftheNet.42InternetUsersandUsage43CriticalMassLevels.44TheCommercialisationofCyberspace.45Axiomsoftheprevioussection.46THENEEDFORANINTERACTIVEMODELOFCULTURALTRANSFORMATION.47TOWARDSEXPLAININ

7、GINTERCULTURALTRANSFORMATION49THECULTURESHOCK.50FROMSHOCKTOSELF-REFLECTION51SHOCK,REFLECTION,ADAPTATION51FROMTHEINDIVIDUALTOTHESOCIETY53DEFINITIONS.53ASSUMPTIONS55AXIOMS.58CONCLUSIONANDDISCUSSION.60APPENDIX1-GLOBALMEDIAPLAYERS63REFERENCES66IndexofTablesandFiguresTABLE1MONOCHRONICANDPOLYCHRONICCULTUR

8、ES.12TABLE2VALUEORIENTATIONS19TABLE3THEFIVELARGESTMEDIACONGLOMERATES34TABLE4PRODUCTIONPRICES.35TABLE5HOSTCOUNTDEVELOPMENT.42TABLE6INTERNETACCESSIN1997.43TABLE7INTERNETUSAGE.44FIGURE1CO-OPERATIONANDDISTRIBUTIONAGREEMENTSOFSOMEMEDIACOMPANIES.36FIGURE2MEDIA-TELECOMMUNICATIONANDITAGREEMENTS37FIGURE3AMER

9、ICANISATIONOFTV:VOLUMEOFUSPROGRAMMINGONTVIMPORTS.39PREFACEANDACKNOWLEDGEMENTSEncountersbetweenpeopleofdifferentculturalbackgroundhaveexistedforever,andequallyforever,peoplewerethinkingaboutphenomenathatwereunusualinothercultures.However,thoseencounterswererelativelyseldominearlytimes,today,theyareal

10、mostpartofeverydaylife:thefacilitedcommunciationandmovementofpeoplehasmadeitpossible.Atthesametime,thefacilitatedinterchangebetweencultureshasjeopoardisedtheirveryexistence,andfacilitatedtheemergenceofacosmopolitanculture,aphenomenaoftenreferredtoasglobalisation.Thisprojectaimstoprovideanoverviewoft

11、hethreemainareasthattheinterculturalencounterandtheglobalisationencompass.Primarily,whatmakesculturesdifferentfromeachother.Secondlyitaimstoprovideanoverviewoftrendsthathavehadadeepimpactonculturesandinterculturalencounters,andfacilitatedtheglobalisationandemergenceofacosmopolitainculture.Thirdlyitl

12、ooksattheprocesstheindividualgoesthroughinaninterculturalencounter,andhowitadaptstocultureshiftsinitsenvironment.Manypeoplehavecontributedtothisprojectdirectly,orindirectly.InparticularIwouldliketothanktheEuropeanUniversityBarcelonaforprovidingthespaceandenvironmentthatmadethisprojectpossible.Amajor

13、contributor,notonlyasthepromotorofthisproject,butfortheoverallstudies,hasbeenMercCanoGmez.Shehasbeenavailableatalltimeswithahelpfuladviceandahelpinghandandhasprovidedamajorsupportforthisprojectandthestudiesingeneral.EquallyPilarColomhasprovidedthroughherclassesandfurtherdiscussionsinvaluableinputint

14、othisproject.Shehasalsobeenagreatsupportforthestudiesingeneral,andbeyondthescopeoftheclass.AlsoGermnAragnprovided,throughhiscross-culturalcommunicationsclasses,aninterestingandpracticalbackgroundtothisproject.FinallyIwouldliketothankthosepeopleoutsidetheuniversity,whohavebeenhelpfulandsupportiveduri

15、ngmystayhereinBarcelonaandhavehadtoenduresometimestiringconversationsaboutthescopeandapproachofthisproject.Inparticular,Iwouldliketothankmyparents,whomadethestudiesfinanciallypossibleandwhohaveprovidedmewithinvaluablesupport,GuidoVerweijwhoprovidedcriticalsupportandCarlosBaezforprovidinginsightsinto

16、theSpanishsocietyandcriticalcommentsonmyviews.Iwouldalsolikeallmyco-studentsfromtheMA,whohaveatalltimesprovidedcriticalsupportforthisproject.Introduction“Thebourgeoisiehas,throughitsexpolitationoftheworldmarket,givenacosmopolitancharactertoproductionandconsumption(sic),andasinmaterialsoinintellectua

17、lproduction.Theintellectualcreationsofindividualnationsbecomecommonproperty.(sic)Fromthenumerousnationalandlocalliteratures,therearisesaworldliterature.”KarlMarxAttheendofthetwentiethcenturythepost-moderngeographicorder,andtheneoliberaleconomicorderhavegivenrise,intheWesternEuropeanstatesinparticula

18、r,toanewformofidentity.Theglobalidentity.ParticularlytheNorthernEuropeanstatescelebratethetransnationalfeeling,andtheglobalisationoftheircitizens.93%ofGermanstudentsspeakEnglishwellenoughtohaveaconversation,45%candothatwithFrench.Swedentopsthelistofforeignexchangeprogrammes:32%ofitsstudentshavestudi

19、edabroad,17%oftheGermanshave,16%ofBritish,11%ofFrench,6%ofSpanishstudents(Spiegel,1998;78).ViainternetandsatelliteTVtheworld,atleastthedevelopedone,hasmovedclosertogether.Danoneyoghurt,Arielwashingpowder,GilletterazorsandMarssnackbarshaveenteredeventheremotestofalllocalsupermarkets,givingtheworldthe

20、bestamancanget,thewhitestwhitesandfun,workandplay.No,theglobalisationhasnotstoppedwiththeBigMac,theglobalisationisinallourfridgesandstorageboards.StephenKing,JohnleCarr,Jean-DominiqueBauby,JohnGrisham,ElizabethGeorgetopthebest-sellerlistsaroundtheglobe,whilethesplitofboy-groupTakeThatbroketheheartso

21、fthelostteenagerseveninthesmallestofthevillagesaroundEurope.Titanicwasnotonlytheluxurygrandeurofthecruiseships,italsoprovedtobetheluxurygrandeurofCinemaaudiencesaroundtheglobe,breathlesslyawaitingthetragicclimax.ThequestiondoyouknowOphra?isjustnolongerasked,thegrandmotherofthebanal,clichtalkshowhasl

22、ongmadeherwayaroundtheglobe,andflimmersdailyonmillionsofscreens,eitherinpersonorimpersonatedbysomeequallytragicallylookingfemale,solvingtheproblemsofeveryhousewife,mother,professionalwoman,daughterorwhateverelsemightgluetheaudiencestothesmallscreen.Andoncetheproblemshavebeendiscussed,thentheWheelofF

23、ortuneorthePriceisRightbringtheillusionofthebigwin,thegreatluck.Andforthosethatareevenmoreaspiring,thereisalwaysthenewgameofforeignstudentsthatdonotspeakthelanguage:“namethatshowonforeignTV”,becauseafterall,FijftegenFijforFamilienduell,itsstillthesame.Indeed,weareconnected,interchanged,exchangedand,

24、mostimportantly,denationalised.Europeisgrowingtogether,orDerEurokommt(TheEuroiscoming),andthatnotonlymonetarywise.AtripthroughMarks&SpencerintheUKreveals:TheBritishdiethassaidgood-byetounsalted,overcookedandunspicedfood,lovinglyaccompaniedbyoneofEuropesworstwines.ChickenTikka,GnocchiandCalabacinesal

25、hornomakeupthenewBritishdiet,andwhoeveraccusedtheBritishofhorrificbreadthatcanbesqueezedtothesizeofaverysmallpotato,shouldjusttheseethelatestselectionatSainsburys:FrenchBreaddelaCampagne,madeinFrance,bakedinBritain.AndafterTescosistheWineMerchantoftheYear,andanEnglishmantheMaitreDesVins,thescandalon

26、thetablehasreachedtrulyEuropean(orshallwesaycontinental?)format.AndevenacrosstheAtlantic,longtimeknownfortheirworsethanbrownwatercoffee,thezeitgeisthasmovedin,andtheoldout.Infacttomuch,thattheUSAmericansarenowreadytoattacktheEuropeancoffeemarketwithExpressolaAmericaine.Butevenwithallofthis,wearenott

27、hesame.Somehowsomepeoplestillrefusetobecometheworldcitizenthatissooftenproclaimed.SomehowtheBritisharestillBritish,andtheGermansstillGermans.Certainly,theglobalisationistakingplace.Thatcannotbedenied.Andwiththeglobalisationcomesanunprecedentedinfluenceonthenationalcultures.Theworldisinterconnected,t

28、heflowofinformationhasonlyverylimitedborders,sohastheflowofpeopleandinfluences.Whatwasbeforethecolonisation,andtheinfluenceonthelocalculture,thatistakingplacenowonalarger,fasterandmoreefficientscale.Itreachesnotonlyacertainclass,itreachesfarintothesociety,everysociety.Thisprojectaimstoconsolidatethe

29、phenomenaofglobalisation,ofinterculturalencountersandofculturaldifferences.Inapost-modernsociety,thegroupsthatmakeasocietyarenolongerclearlydefined,thebordersareopen.Thenationalandlocalcultureshavecomeinasuctionofglobalforces,andhavetoadopt.Inthefirstpartoftheproject,wewillbelookingatwhatculturaldif

30、ferencesareassuch.Thisisdoneinthetraditionofthehumanist/positivisttraditionofenquiry,resultinginavariablesetofculturedeterminantsandtheirimpactonthelocalcultureunderexamination.Duringthesecondpart,wetakealookatthedevelopmentofthemostinfluentialimpactfactorsthatleadtoculturetransformation:Theextensio

31、noftheneoliberaleconomicworldorder,andtheglobalisationofconsumption;theextensionofthepoliticalethosoftheWest;theMediacultureandtheshiftsinthesubjectiverealityitrepresentsandfinallytheriseoftheInternet(asthemostdominantexampleofCMC),thatemergesasapotentiallynewformoffacilitatedinformationflowaroundth

32、eglobe.Inthelastpart,weexaminethetheoryofinterculturalencounters.Theargumentforthisisthatthistheoryisnotonlyvalidintheviewofdirectandpersonalinterculturalencounters,butalsoinindirectencounters.Theprojectendswiththeconclusion,andreviewofsomeoftheissuesthathavebeendiscussedduringtheentityoftheproject.

33、DeterminantsofCultureandIdentityWhatisCulture?ThewordculturestemsfromtheLatin“colere”,translatableastobuildon,tocultivate,tofoster.Leibnitz,Voltaire,Hegel,vonHumbold,Kant,Freud,Adorno,Marcuse,allhavereflectedonthemeaningofthewordindifferentversionsofitsuse.Intheearlystagesofthephilosophicaldebateabo

34、utwhatisculture,thetermoftenreferstotheoppositeofnature,whereasculturewasreferringtosomethingconstructedwillinglybymen,whilenaturewasgiveninitself.Sincethe18thcentury,thewordcultureemergedmoreinthesenseofproductsthatareworthy:somewhatreducedtoDrer,GoetheandBeethoven,thetermwasusedtodescribeEliteandh

35、igh-cultureconcepts,particularlyincontinentalEurope.Thisdefinitionofcultureisstillvivid;Rickert,inKulturwissenschaftundNaturwissenschaft(Thescienceofcultureandthescienceofnature),definesculture,followingtheElitistapproach,as:“GesamtheitderrealenObjekte,andenenallgemeinanerkannteWerteoderdurchsiekons

36、truierteSinngebildehaftenunddiemitRuecksichtaufdieWertegepflegtwerden”(Thetotalityofrealobjects,towhichthegeneralvalues,orsenseconstructionsofthose,arerelated,andwhicharecaredforwithregardstothevalues.)(Rickert,quotedinMaletzke,1996:16).Equally,duringthemid-nineteenthcentury,theconceptofmassculturea

37、ndpopularcultureemerged,fuellingthecriticaltheoryoftheFrankfurtSchoolandtheBirminghamSchool.InthewordsofStuartHall,oftheBirminghamSchool,cultureis“boththemeansandvalueswhichariseamongdistinctivesocialgroupsandclasses,onthebasisoftheirgivenhistoricalconditionsandrelationship,throughwhichtheyhandleand

38、respondtotheconditionsofexistence”(Hall,quotedinMcQuail,1994:100).Anotherviewofculture,focusesofcultureasasetofvaluesandattributesofagivengroup,andtherelationoftheindividualtotheculture,andtheindividualsacquisitionofthosevaluesandattributes:inthewordsofGeertHofstede:“thecollectiveprogrammingofthemin

39、d”(quotedinVictor,1992:6).Fisher,quotedinthesamework,definescultureas:”Itissharedbehaviour,whichisimportantbecauseitsystematisesthewaypeopledothings,thusavoidingconfusionandallowingco-operationsothatgroupsofpeoplecanaccomplishwhatnosingleindividualcoulddoalone.Anditisbehaviourimposedbysanctions,rewa

40、rdsandpunishmentsforthosewhoarepartofthegroup”(Fisher,1988).Inthecontextofthispaper,wewilladoptthedefinitionofcultureasthetotalityofthefollowingattributesofagivengroup(orsubgroup):sharedvalues,believesandbasicassumptions,aswellasanybehaviourarisingfromthose,ofagivengroup.Cultureisunderstood,inthisco

41、ntext,ascollectivelyheldsetofattributes,whichisdynamicandchangingovertime.Agroupcantherebybevariousformsofsocialconstructions:itisnotmerelyanynation,butalsosupranationalandinternationalgroupsarepossible,andoftenclearlydistinguishable.Theindividualandthecultureinwhichislivesisacomplexsetofrelationshi

42、ps.Ontheoneside,theindividualdeterminesitsculture,ontheother,itisdeterminedbyitsculture.Bycontributingtotheculturearoundhim,theindividualispartoftheculturalchange.S.G.Summerintroducedtheconceptof“Ethnocentrism”earlythiscentury:itreferstothetendencythatmostpeopleseetheirowncultureasthecentreoftheworl

43、d.Oftenthisphenomenonhasbeenseenasaresultof“naive”thinking,followingfromtheassumptionoftheworldinitselfbeinglikeitappearstotheindividual:asetofself-evidentrules,roles,categoriesandrelationships,seenasnatural.Theconceptofethnocentrismisoftendisplayedintheformofnationalism.Returningtoourinitialdiscuss

44、ionofwhatconstitutesaculture,variousconceptsareoftendisplayedasthebasicdifferentiationofcultures(Maletzke,1996:42):-nationalcharacter/basicpersonality(Nationalcharkter/Basispersnlichkeit)-perception(Wahrnehmung)-timeconcept(Zeiterleben)-spaceconcept(Raumerleben)-thinking(Denken)-language(Sprache)-no

45、nverbalcommunication(nichtverbaleKommunikation)-values(Wertorientierungen)-behaviour:norms,rules,manners(Verhaltensmuster:Normen,Rollen,Sitten)-socialgroupingsandrelationships(SozialeGrupierungenundBeziehungen).Often,culturehasalsobeendescribedasorderedintothreelayers,infactlikeanonion,whereonepeelh

46、astobetakenoffinordertoseethefollowinglayer.Thethreelayersofcultureareexplainedas:Theouterlayer,artefactsandproducts,isthemostexplicitofalllayers:includinglanguageandfood,architectureandstyleetc.Thesecondinnerlayer,normsandvalues.Normsare“themutualsensewhatisrightandwrong”whilevaluesrepresentthe“def

47、initionofwhatisgoodandbad”(TrompenaarsandHempdenTurner,1997:22).Theinnermostlayer,basicassumptions,representsthecoreassumptionsofwhatlifeis,assumptionsabouthowtohandleeverydayproblemsthathavebecomeself-evident.Thisexplanationofthevisibilityofthelayersisbasedonaverypracticalapproachtoculture,whereasM

48、aletzkesbasicdifferentiationprovidesamoreprofoundapproachtotheactualcriteriathatinfluencethedifferentlevels.Thesecriteriaareexplainedinthefollowingsection:TheNationalCharacter/BasicPersonalityEachnationhasitsowncharacter,theFrencharenotliketheEnglish,andtheDutchnotliketheGermans.However,theattemptto

49、definewhatmakeseachofthecharactersdistinctwillprovidemassivedifficulties.Theideaofanationalcharacterisbasedontheassumptionthatpeoplefromonenationsharebasiccommonbehaviouralpatternsandpersonalitytraits,differentiablefromothernations.Theconcepthashoweverbeenoftencriticised,andisoftenonlyfuelledbyperce

50、ptionsoftheonenationtowardstheother,resultinginanumberofattributesthatonenationapparentlydisplays:theGermansareorderly,hard-workingandhumourlessHowever,findingsinthatfieldhavebeenoftencontradictory,particularlyfromhighlydiversifiedcultures.Themethodologicaldifficultiesmaybeoneofthereasonswhythetermn

51、ationalcharacterhaswidelybeenreplacedwithbasicpersonalityorsocialcharacterinmodernliterature.Thetwolaterconcepts,althoughalsooftendeemedasequallyunreliable,stemfromtheideathatthechildisbeingsubjecttoculturalinfluenceduringhisearlystages,andhencedevelopsabasicpersonalitysimilarinvariouscultures.Equal

52、lythesocialcharacterconcepttriestoidentifythecommoncharacterstructuresofaculture.PerceptionPerceptionisnotapassive,objectiveandneutralprocess.Everyperceptionisseenasanactiveprocess:“whatisperceivedisbecomingpartofthesubjectiveexperience,embeddedintothewholeofthepersonalitystructureofthatperson,inclu

53、dingwhateverthepersonsdevelopmentprocess,hisculturalandmaterialenvironmenthasgivenhimorheraswaysofthinkingandviewingthings”(Maletzke,1996:48).Thehumanbeingdistinguishesactivelybetweenimportantandunimportant:perceivesobjectsactivelyandclearly,whileothersareonlypartiallyperceivedorignored.Visualpercep

54、tionisoneofthetraitswheretheculturespecificviewobjectsisclearlydemonstrated:MostEuropeanswillhavedifficultiesdistinguishingforexampleJapanesefaces.Tajfel(inMaletzke1996,49)describesanexperimentwhereUSAmericansandMexicanswerepresentedwithaseriesofphotos,depictingsituationswhichwereonlyknowntotheoneor

55、othernationality.Eachparticipantwasfoundtoremembermoreaccuratelyandvividlythephotosshowingsituationsthatwerefamiliartotheownculture.Theotherphotoswereonlyrelativelyvagueifatallremembered.Equally,theperceptionoffeelingisalteredindifferentculturalsurrounding:shakinghands,kissing,havedifferentperceptio

56、nsinvariouscultures.Interpersonaldistancemaybeperceivedasessentialorundesirable(EnglishcultureorLatinculture).Alsotheperceptionofwhatsmellsgoodorbadcanbehighlydifferentinvariousculturalsurroundings.TimeConceptsTheculturehasasignificantimpactontheconceptsoftime.Timecaneitherbeperceivedaslinear(wester

57、nperception)orcircular(easternperception).Equallytheorientation,oroutlook,oftheculturecanbefocusedoneitherthepast,thepresentorthefuture.Anotherconceptisthenotionofmonochronicandpolychronictimeconception.Themonochronictimeconceptfollowsthenotionof“onethingatatime”andtimeismoney”,whilethepolychronicco

58、nceptfocusesonmultipletasksarehandledatonetime,andtimeissubordinatetointerpersonalrelations.Thefollowingtablegivesbriefoverviewofthetwodifferenttimeconcepts:Table1MonochronicandPolychronicCulturesMonochronicCulturePolychronicCultureInterpersonalRelationsInterpersonalrelationsaresubordinatetopresents

59、chedulePresentscheduleissubordinatetoInterpersonalrelationsActivityCo-ordinationScheduleco-ordinatesactivity;appointmenttimeisrigid.Interpersonalrelationsco-ordinateactivity;appointmenttimeisflexibleTaskHandlingOnetaskatatimeManytasksarehandledsimultaneouslyBreaksandPersonalTimeBreaksandpersonaltime

60、aresacrosanctregardlessofpersonalties.Breaksandpersonaltimearesubordinatetopersonalties.TemporalStructureTimeisinflexible;timeistangibleTimeisflexible;timeisfluidWork/personaltimeseparabilityWorktimeisclearlyseparablefrompersonaltimeWorktimeisnotclearlyseparablefrompersonaltimeOrganisationalPercepti