社會(huì)心理學(xué)考試要點(diǎn)

1、名詞解釋1. social psychology: The scientific study of of how people think about, influence ,and relate to one another. 社會(huì)心理學(xué)是一門就人們?nèi)绾慰创耍ㄉ缢迹绾斡绊懰耍ㄉ缬埃?，又如何互相關(guān)聯(lián)（社關(guān)）的種種問題進(jìn)行科學(xué)研究的學(xué)科。 2. hindsight bias（事后知明偏見）: The tendency to exaggerate, after learning an outcome, ones ability to have foreseen how something

2、 turned out.3. field research（田園研究）: research done in natural, real -life settings outside the laboratoryCorrelational research（相關(guān)研究）: asking whether two or more factors are naturally associated .(status and longevity) detecting natural associations.Advantages: involving important variables in natur

3、al settings.(race ,gender and social status)Disadvantages: ambiguous interpretation of cause and effect.Correlational research allows us to predict, but it cannot tell us whether changing one variable will cause changes in another.Experiment research（實(shí)驗(yàn)研究）:manipulating some factor to see its effect

4、another.) Experimental Designs to determine causationControl Random Assignment: the great equalizer.（隨機(jī)分配）Random assignment can eliminates all extraneous factors.With random assignment, each person has an equal chance Solutions：Single and double-blind procedures（單盲或雙盲實(shí)驗(yàn)）The ethics of experimentation

5、Social psychologists often alter peoples social experience and note the effect. Sometimes, researchers find themselves operating in a gray area between the harmless and the risky.4. spotlight effect（焦點(diǎn)效應(yīng)）：we tend to see ourselves at center stage, and so intuitively(直觀的) overestimate（高估） the extent（程

6、度） to which others attention is aimed at us. Illusion of transparency（透明度錯(cuò)覺）: People can keenly aware of our own emotions.Fewer people notice than we presume.5. self-concept（自我概念）: A persons answers to the question ,”who am I?”6. self-reference effect（自我參照效應(yīng)）: the tendency to process efficiently and

7、 remember well information related to oneself. 7. social comparison（社會(huì)比較）：Others around us help to define the standard by which we define ourselves as rich or poor, smart or dumb: we compare ourselves with them and consider how we differ社會(huì)比較的三種類型：上行社會(huì)比較：即與比自己成就大得多的人比較。下行社會(huì)比較：同不如你的人做比較。 與自己相仿的人做比較8.

8、individualism（個(gè)人主義）: Individualism: the concept of giving priority to ones own goals over group goals and defining one identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications Collectivism（集體主義）: Giving priority（優(yōu)先） to the goals of one groups and define one identity accordingly9. s

9、elf-efficacy（自我效能感）: the subjective judgment of ones ability before you do something. A sense that one is competent and effective, distinguished from self-esteem, one sense of self-worth.10. learned helplessness（習(xí)得性無助）: Depressed or oppressed people become passive because they believe their efforts

10、have no effect11. self-esteem（自尊）: A persons overall self-evaluation or sense of self-worth.12. self-serving bias（自我服務(wù)偏見）:The tendency to perceive oneself favorably.13. false-consensus effect（虛假普遍性）: On matters of opinion ,we find support for our positions by overestimating the extent to which other

11、s agree. False uniqueness（虛假獨(dú)特性）: On matters of ability or when we behave well or successfully, a false uniqueness effect more often occurs.14. self-handicapping（自我設(shè)限）:protecting ones self-image with behavior that create a handy excuse for later failure.15. attribution theory（歸因理論）: the theory of ho

12、w we explain people behavior. Heider concluded that people tend to attribute someones behavior to internal cause or external cause. 海德認(rèn)為人們對(duì)過去的成功或失敗主要?dú)w結(jié)于四個(gè)方面的因素：努力、能力、任務(wù)難度和機(jī)遇。這四種因素又可按內(nèi)外因、穩(wěn)定性和可控性進(jìn)一步分類：從內(nèi)外因方面來看，努力和能力屬于內(nèi)因，而任務(wù)難度和機(jī)遇則屬外部原因；從穩(wěn)定性來看能力和任務(wù)難度屬于穩(wěn)定因素，努力與機(jī)遇則屬不穩(wěn)定因素； 從可控性來看，努力是可以控制的因素，而任務(wù)難度和機(jī)遇則超出個(gè)人控制

13、范圍。Commonsense attribution（常識(shí)性歸因）：In testimony to the reasonable ways in which we explain behavior , attribution theorist Harold Kelley described how we use information about consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus. 凱利認(rèn)為，人們對(duì)行為歸因總是涉及三個(gè)方面的因素（1）客觀刺激物；（2）行動(dòng)者；（3）所處關(guān)系或情境；對(duì)上述三個(gè)因素的任何一個(gè)因素的歸因都取決于下列三種行為信息：

14、1. 區(qū)別性：指行動(dòng)者是否對(duì)同類其它刺激做出相同的反應(yīng)，他是在眾多場合下都表現(xiàn)出這種行為還是僅在某一特定情境下表現(xiàn)這一行為。如果行為的區(qū)分性低，則觀察者可能會(huì)對(duì)行為內(nèi)部歸因；如果行為的區(qū)分性高，則活動(dòng)原因可能會(huì)被歸于外部。 2. 一貫性：指行動(dòng)者是否在任何情境和任何時(shí)候?qū)ν淮碳の镒鱿嗤姆磻?yīng)，即行動(dòng)者的行為是否穩(wěn)定持久。3. 一致性：指其他人對(duì)同一刺激物是否也做出與行為者相同的方式反應(yīng)。如果每個(gè)人面對(duì)相似的情境都有相同的反應(yīng)，我們說該行為表現(xiàn)出一致性。16. illusory correlation（錯(cuò)覺關(guān)聯(lián)）:perception of a relationship where none

15、exists, or perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists.17.attitude（態(tài)度）:a favorable or unfavorable evaluative reaction toward something or someone, exhibited in ones belief, feeling, or intended behavior. 18.foot-in-the-door-phenomenon（登門檻效應(yīng)）: the tendency for people who have first agr

16、eed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.19. self-perception theory(自我知覺理論)：the theory that when we are unsure of our attitudes, we infer them much as would someone observing us, by looking at our behavior and the circumstances under which it occurs.20. aggression(攻擊)：physical or

17、 verbal behavior intended to hurt someone. In laboratory experiments, this might mean delivering electric shocks or saying something likely to hurt anothers feeling. Hostile aggression(敵意性攻擊) instrumental aggression(工具性攻擊)21. conformity(從眾)：a change in behavior or belief to accord with others.22. gr

18、oup：two or more people who longer than a few moments, interact with and influence one another and perceive one another as us.23. social loafing(社會(huì)懈怠)：The tendency for people to exert less effort when they pool their efforts toward a common goal than when they are individually accountable.24. Deindiv

19、iduation(去個(gè)體化):Loss of self-awareness and evaluation apprehension，occurs in group situations.25. group polarization(群體極化)：group-produced enhancement of members preexisting tendencies; a strengthening of the members average tendency, not a split within the group .26. Altruism（利他主義）: a motive to incre

20、ase anothers welfare without conscious regard ones self-interests.27.cognitive dissonance(認(rèn)知失調(diào))：Tension that arises when one is simultaneously aware of two inconsistent cognitions.28.prejudice(偏見):a negative prejudgment of a group and its individual uition(直覺)：a thinking strategy that e

21、nable quick ,efficient judgment. 論述題：1決定自我概念形成的因素：Self-schema: Beliefs about self that organize and guide the processing of self-relevant information.(界定自我的特殊信念)。 圖式是對(duì)特定概念、事物或事件的認(rèn)知結(jié)構(gòu)，它影響對(duì)相關(guān)信息的加工過程。自我圖式：關(guān)于我們自己的有組織的知識(shí)結(jié)構(gòu)，它基于我們過去的經(jīng)驗(yàn)，幫助我們理解、解釋和預(yù)計(jì)我們自己的行為。The dark side of Self-esteem：Low Self-esteem predic

22、ts increased risk of depression, drug abuse and some forms of delinquency（行為不良）.Please explain the adaptive effect of self-serving bais.1 Even illusory self-enhancement correlates with many mental health indicators2 Positive self-esteem viewing oneself as good and secure even protects us from feelin

23、g error over our eventual death3 .Belief In our superiority can also motivate us to achieve and sustain a sense of hope in difficult times.2. 自我服務(wù)偏見的表現(xiàn):1. attributing ones success to ability and failure to luck and things external. Ex: I got the A in history because I studied hard. I got the D in so

24、ciology because the exams were unfair.2. comparing oneself favorably to others. Ex: Im better to my parents than my sister.3. Unrealistic optimism . ex: Even though 50% of marriages fail. I know mine will be enduring joy.4. false consensus and uniqueness. Ex: I know most people agree with me that gl

25、obal warming threatens our future.3. cognitive dissonance（認(rèn)知失調(diào)）（認(rèn)知失調(diào)）: 當(dāng)個(gè)體面對(duì)新情境，必須標(biāo)示自身態(tài)度時(shí)，個(gè)體在心理上將出先心認(rèn)知（新的理解），與舊認(rèn)知相互沖突的表現(xiàn)。解決認(rèn)知不協(xié)調(diào)方法：1 改變行為，使對(duì)行為的認(rèn)知符合態(tài)度的認(rèn)知。2改變態(tài)度，使其符合行為。3引進(jìn)心的認(rèn)知元素，改變不協(xié)調(diào)的狀況?；謴?fù)平衡方法：1改變或否定其中一個(gè)元素，2降低一個(gè)或兩個(gè)元素的重要性或強(qiáng)度，3增加心的認(rèn)知元素減少認(rèn)知失調(diào)方法：1 改變認(rèn)知：如果兩個(gè)認(rèn)知相互矛盾，我們可以改變其中一個(gè)認(rèn)知，使他與另一個(gè)相一致；2增加心的認(rèn)知：如果兩個(gè)不一致的認(rèn)知

26、導(dǎo)致失調(diào)，那么失調(diào)程度可由增加；3改變認(rèn)知的相對(duì)重要性：因?yàn)橐恢潞筒灰恢碌恼J(rèn)知必須根據(jù)其重要性來衡量；4改變行為：行為比態(tài)度更難改變4What predicts conformity?( 預(yù)測從眾的因素)group size（群體規(guī)模）three to five people will elicit much more conformity than one or two. 35人比12人能引發(fā)更多的從眾行為.unanimity（一致性）Observing someone elses dissent-even when it is wrong can increase our own inde

27、pendence. 一系列實(shí)驗(yàn)表明，如果有人破壞了群體的一致性，就會(huì)降低群體的社會(huì)影響力。cohesion（凝聚力）The more cohesive a group is ,the more power it gains over its members.一個(gè)群體的凝聚力越強(qiáng)，對(duì)成員的影響力就越大。status（地位）higher-status people tend to have more impact. People actually avoid agreeing with low-status or stigmatize people.地位高的人往往有更大的影響力，人們盡量避免與地位

28、低的或受別人嘲笑的人的意見相一致。public response（公開反應(yīng)）People conform more in their public response than in their private.一個(gè)群體的凝聚力越強(qiáng)，對(duì)成員的影響力就越大；群體之外的人提出的少數(shù)派觀點(diǎn)對(duì)我們的影響小于自己群體內(nèi)提出的觀點(diǎn)。經(jīng)典從眾實(shí)驗(yàn)：阿西線條實(shí)驗(yàn)，謝里夫的規(guī)范形成實(shí)驗(yàn)（暗室觀點(diǎn)效應(yīng)） ,米爾格拉姆的服從實(shí)驗(yàn)（權(quán)威的接近性和合法性；機(jī)構(gòu)的權(quán)威性；群體影響的釋放效應(yīng)）。Why conformity：一： the power of situation on conformity（1當(dāng)情景模糊不清時(shí)；當(dāng)

29、我們不確定自己怎樣做或沒有合理想法時(shí)，你會(huì)更容易受到他人的影響。越不確定，越容易從眾。2當(dāng)情景危急時(shí)，當(dāng)處于危急時(shí)刻時(shí)，我們沒有時(shí)間停下來思考應(yīng)采取哪種行為，于是別人怎么做，我們便怎么做。3當(dāng)情景中有專家時(shí)，在模糊情景中，一個(gè)人具備有關(guān)注情景的知識(shí)越多，他的行為對(duì)他人的指導(dǎo)作用越大。）Who will conformity：阿西指出，低自尊的人更可能表現(xiàn)出從眾；snyder研究發(fā)現(xiàn)那些強(qiáng)烈需要他人認(rèn)同的人更可能發(fā)生從眾行為。Eagl等人的研究顯示，男性比女性表現(xiàn)出更少的從眾。How can we resist social pressure to comform？ 1 reactance(逆反

30、) 2 asserting uniquensess(堅(jiān)持獨(dú)立性)。1 如果社會(huì)壓力非常明顯，以至于威脅到個(gè)體的自由感時(shí)，他們常會(huì)反抗；2 實(shí)驗(yàn)研究表明，努力閑置人們的自由常會(huì)導(dǎo)致反從眾現(xiàn)象。3 實(shí)驗(yàn)表明，當(dāng)個(gè)人認(rèn)為自己是獨(dú)特的，并且這種中等程度的會(huì)產(chǎn)生較好的自我感覺。5The examples of social influence (群體對(duì)個(gè)人的影響)1、Social facilitation（社會(huì)助長）: how are we affected by the presence of others.2、Social Loafing (社會(huì)懈怠):The tendency for people

31、 to exert less effort when they pool their efforts toward a common goal than when they are individually accountable.How to avoid social loafing?1. when the task is challenging, appealing, or involving On challenging tasks, people may perceive their efforts as indispensable.面對(duì)挑戰(zhàn)性的任務(wù)時(shí)，人們可能認(rèn)為付出自己的努力是必不

32、可少的2.When people see others in their group as unreliable or as unable to contribute much ,they work harder.假設(shè)人們認(rèn)為小組中的其他成員都靠不住或者沒有能力做出多少貢獻(xiàn)，那他們也會(huì)付出更大的努力3.Adding incentives or challenging a group to strive for certain standards also promotes collective effort.對(duì)群體實(shí)施激勵(lì)性措施或者讓群體為一個(gè)有挑戰(zhàn)性的目標(biāo)而奮斗也可以提高整體的實(shí)力4. Wh

33、en groups believe high effort will enable performance that will bring rewards, their members will work hard.（只要團(tuán)體成員堅(jiān)信高的努力程度能夠取得好的作業(yè)成績并且會(huì)帶來回報(bào)，他們就會(huì)努力工作）5. when their members are friends or identified with their group rather than strangers .小組成員都是朋友而非陌生人或成員都很認(rèn)同自己的群體時(shí)減少社會(huì)懈怠的有效途徑：1、不僅公布整個(gè)群體的工作成績，而且還公布每個(gè)成

34、員的工作成績，使大家感覺到自己的工作是被監(jiān)控的，是可評(píng)價(jià)的。2、幫助成員認(rèn)識(shí)到他人的工作成績，使他們了解到不僅自己是努力工作的，他人也是努力工作的。3、不要將一個(gè)群體組織得太大，可以將一個(gè)大群體劃成幾個(gè)規(guī)模較小的群體。3、Deindividuation（去個(gè)體化）：Loss of self-awareness and evaluation apprehension，occurs in group situations What circumstances elicit deindividuationGroup size(群體規(guī)模) Physical anonymity（身體隱匿）Arousin

35、g and distracting activities（喚起和分散活動(dòng)Diminished self-awareness（自我意識(shí)減弱）6.aggression（攻擊性）:physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone. In laboratory experiments, this might mean delivering electric shocks or saying something likely to hurt anothers feelings.(工具性攻擊和敵意性攻擊) 7. what enables close

36、relationships(什么因素影響親密關(guān)系)：1、attachment依戀2、equity公平性：a condition which the outcomes people receive from a relationship are proportional to what they contribute it. Note :equitable outcomes neednt always be equal outcomes. 3、self-disclosure:revealing intimate aspects of oneself to other.8. Altruism（利他

37、主義）a motive to increase anothers welfare without conscious regard ones self-interests.Why do we help:1、Social exchange (社會(huì)交換)：Human interactions are transactions that aim to maximize ones rewards and minimize ones costs. （1）催生幫助行為的報(bào)償有外部的也有內(nèi)部的。（2）幫助行為也能提升我們的自我價(jià)值感。2、Internal rewards（內(nèi)部獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)）（1）Guilt （避免內(nèi)

38、疚感的產(chǎn)生） （2）mood A、積極的心境能夠顯著地促進(jìn)幫助行為，感激之情和內(nèi)疚感也影響利他行為。B、消極心境減少幫助行為。憤怒不可能產(chǎn)生同情3、Social norms（社會(huì)準(zhǔn)則）：（1）The reciprocity norm（互惠規(guī)范）：Those who help us, we should return help, not harm.Reciprocity norm: An expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.（2）Social-responsibility norm（社會(huì)責(zé)

39、任規(guī)范）Social-responsibility norm: the belief that people should help those who need help, without regard to future exchanges.在助人方面，人們一般遵循下列社會(huì)規(guī)范：（1）如果他們是環(huán)境的受害者，如遇到自然災(zāi)害等，他們就會(huì)得到全力的援助。（2）如果他們的困境是因懶惰、不道德、缺乏遠(yuǎn)見等造成的，社會(huì)規(guī)范會(huì)使其自食其果。（3）如果把別人的需要?dú)w因?yàn)椴豢煽氐睦Ь?，我們就?huì)幫助他。（4）如果我們把別人的需要?dú)w因?yàn)樗麄€(gè)人的選擇，我們并不會(huì)幫助他。4、Evolutionary psycho

40、logy（進(jìn)化心理學(xué)）(1) Kin protection（親緣保護(hù)）When do we help?1、Number of Bystanders. Bystander effect(旁觀者效應(yīng)): The finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders. （1） Noticing（幼兒園面試）（2） Interpreting （解釋）(Sometimes, the victim was actually less likely to get help when many

41、people were around.) （3） Assuming responsibility 大部分情況下，當(dāng)他人在場時(shí)，我們?cè)说姆磻?yīng)會(huì)延遲。但在某些情境中，他人在場有時(shí)不會(huì)抑制人們提供幫助。2、Helping when someone else does 攻擊性榜樣助長攻擊性行為，漠然視之的榜樣也增加冷漠的反應(yīng)3、Time pressure : A person not in a hurry may stop and offer help to a person in distress. A person in a hurry is likely to keep going.匆忙的

42、水平越高，人們對(duì)身邊不幸者提供幫助的可能性就越小。匆忙的條件，增加了人們助人的代價(jià)。4、Similarity : Because similarity is conducive to liking, and liking is conducive to helping, we are more empathic and helpful toward those similar to us.Who will help?Personality Traits :First they have found individual differences in helpfulness and shown

43、that these difference persist over time and are noticed by ones peers.有一些人更傾向于幫助他人。Second ,researchers are gathering clues to the network of traits that predict a person to be helpfulness.（那些具有較高的積極情緒性、共情能力和高自我效能感的人更關(guān)心人，也更容易幫助別人。）Third, personality influences how particular people react to particula

44、r situation.(那些自我監(jiān)控能力強(qiáng)的人如果認(rèn)為助人能夠得到社會(huì)贊許，就會(huì)迎合他人期望從而顯得樂于助人)。社會(huì)責(zé)任感與利他行為有正相關(guān)系、社會(huì)責(zé)任感強(qiáng)，越關(guān)心他人的利益和感受，重視他人的物質(zhì)與精神利益，從而作出更多的利他行為 。2Religious faithFrustration-CPersuasion -A附錄資料：不需要的可以自行刪除長方體和正方體知識(shí)要點(diǎn)名稱面棱頂點(diǎn)長方體有6個(gè)面 一般情況下6個(gè)面都是長方形，相對(duì)的面完全相同（特殊情況下有兩個(gè)相對(duì)的面是正方形，其余的4個(gè)面是完全相同的長方形）有12條棱（相對(duì)的4條棱的長度相等）有8個(gè)頂點(diǎn)正方體有6個(gè)面 是6個(gè)完全相同的正方形有1

45、2條棱12條棱的長度都相等有8個(gè)頂點(diǎn) 長方體的棱長總和 = 長4+寬4+高4 或 長方體的棱長總和=（長+寬+高）4 正方體的棱長總和 = 棱長12 長方體或正方體六個(gè)面的總面積，叫做它的表面積。長方體的表面積 = （長寬 + 長高 + 寬高） 2 上面或下面 前面或后面 左面或右面正方體的表面積 = 棱長棱長 6 一個(gè)面的面積 6個(gè)面物體所占空間的大小叫做物體的體積。容器所能容納物體的體積，叫做這個(gè)容器的容積。常用的體積單位有：（立方厘米）、（立方分米）、（立方米）。 棱長1厘米的正方體，體積是1立方厘米。棱長1分米的正方體，體積是1立方分米。棱長1米的正方體，體積是1立方米。計(jì)量液體的體積

46、，常用（ 升 ）和（ 毫升 ）作單位。1立方分米 = 1升 1立方厘米 = 1毫升長方體的體積=長寬高 正方體的體積=棱長棱長棱長V = abh V =a.a.a 或 V=a3 讀作a的立方表示3個(gè)a相乘。 長方體和正方體底面的面積，叫做它們的底面積。長方體和正方體體積計(jì)算的統(tǒng)一公式：長方體（或正方體）的體積 = 底面積高 V = sh正方體的棱長擴(kuò)大縮小若干倍，它的表面積擴(kuò)大或縮小這個(gè)倍數(shù)的平方，體積擴(kuò)大或縮小這個(gè)倍數(shù)的立方。長方體的長、寬、高同時(shí)擴(kuò)大縮小若干倍，它的表面積擴(kuò)大或縮小這個(gè)倍數(shù)的平方，體積擴(kuò)大或縮小這個(gè)倍數(shù)的立方。分?jǐn)?shù)乘法知識(shí)要點(diǎn)：分?jǐn)?shù)與分?jǐn)?shù)相乘，用分子相乘的積作分子，分母相乘

47、的積作分母。分?jǐn)?shù)與分?jǐn)?shù)相乘的計(jì)算方法對(duì)于整數(shù)與分?jǐn)?shù)相乘也適用，因?yàn)檎麛?shù)可以化成分母是1的分?jǐn)?shù)。求一個(gè)數(shù)的幾分之幾是多少，用乘法計(jì)算。（求一個(gè)數(shù)的幾倍是多少，也用乘法計(jì)算）乘積是1的兩個(gè)數(shù)互為倒數(shù)。A、求一個(gè)分?jǐn)?shù)的倒數(shù)，把它的分子和分母調(diào)換位置。 B、整數(shù)（0除外）的倒數(shù)是 C、 1的倒數(shù)是1 D、 0沒有倒數(shù)。E、真分?jǐn)?shù)的倒數(shù)都大于1，假分?jǐn)?shù)的倒數(shù)都小于或等于1。分?jǐn)?shù)除法知識(shí)要點(diǎn)1、甲數(shù)除以乙數(shù)（乙數(shù)不為0），等于甲數(shù)乘乙數(shù)的倒數(shù)。2、一個(gè)數(shù)（不為0），乘一個(gè)小于1的數(shù)，得數(shù)比這個(gè)數(shù)??； 乘一個(gè)大于1的數(shù)，得數(shù)比這個(gè)數(shù)大。3、被除數(shù)（不為0），除數(shù)大于1，商比被除數(shù)??；除數(shù)小于1，商比被除數(shù)大；除數(shù)等于1，商等于被除數(shù)。4、做分?jǐn)?shù)乘除法應(yīng)用題的注意點(diǎn)：（1）找出關(guān)鍵句，確定單位“1”、比較量，看清單位“1”是已知還是未知。（2）單位“1”已知，求比較量，用乘法計(jì)算。 單位“1” 分率 = 比較量 單位“1”未知，求單位“1”，用方程或除法計(jì)算。 對(duì)應(yīng)量對(duì)應(yīng)分率=單位“1”5、求一個(gè)數(shù)是另一個(gè)數(shù)的幾分之幾用除法計(jì)算。（求一個(gè)數(shù)是另一個(gè)數(shù)的幾倍，也用除法計(jì)算） 求一個(gè)數(shù)的幾分之幾是多少，用乘法計(jì)算。（求一個(gè)數(shù)的幾倍是多少，也用乘法計(jì)算）認(rèn)識(shí)比知識(shí)要點(diǎn)1、兩個(gè)數(shù)