國際貿(mào)易法講義

1、PAGE PAGE 207第一章國際貨物貿(mào)易法教學目的：讓學生了解和掌握有關(guān)國際貨物貿(mào)易的國際國內(nèi)法律制度，掌握國際貨物貿(mào)易合同的簽訂與履行中的法律問題和法律制度。教學重點：國際貨物貿(mào)易合同的主要條款、雙方當事人的權(quán)利義務(wù)、違約救濟、貨物所有權(quán)和風險的轉(zhuǎn)移、聯(lián)合國國際貨物銷售合同公約和國際貿(mào)易術(shù)語解釋通則2000的主要內(nèi)容。教學時數(shù)：8學時第一節(jié)國際貿(mào)易與國際貿(mào)易法概述一、國際貿(mào)易國際貿(mào)易就是商品、貨物或服務(wù)在世界各國和各地區(qū)之間的交換和流動。如果從一個國家的角度來看，一個國家或地區(qū)與其它國家和地區(qū)進行的商品和服務(wù)的交換活動，則稱為對外貿(mào)易。（一）國際貿(mào)易的特點國際貿(mào)易具有如下特點：1國際貿(mào)易

2、具有國際性或跨國性國際貿(mào)易是一種跨國交易活動，這一特征使其與國內(nèi)貿(mào)易區(qū)別開來。對于判斷一項貿(mào)易活動是否是國際貿(mào)易，即其是否具有國際性或跨國性，國際上并無統(tǒng)一的標準。國際上流行的判斷標準大致有三種：一是以當事人的國籍為標準，來自不同國家的當事人之間的貿(mào)易就是國際貿(mào)易；二是以當事人的營業(yè)地為標準，營業(yè)地位于不同國家的當事人之間的貿(mào)易就是國際貿(mào)易；三是綜合標準，綜合考慮當事人的國際、營業(yè)地、要約和承諾的地點、貨物或服務(wù)跨越國境流動等因素。聯(lián)合國國際貨物銷售合同公約采用的是營業(yè)地標準。公約第1條第1款規(guī)定：“本公約適用于營業(yè)地在不同國家的當事人之間訂立的貨物銷售合同。”2國際貿(mào)易的標的物可以是商品、技

3、術(shù)或服務(wù)傳統(tǒng)的國際貿(mào)易的標的物主要是貨物，傳統(tǒng)的國際貿(mào)易也僅指國際貨物貿(mào)易。二十世紀以來，隨著服務(wù)業(yè)的發(fā)展，服務(wù)產(chǎn)業(yè)在世界經(jīng)濟和各國的國民經(jīng)濟中占據(jù)著越來越重要的地位，跨越國境提供服務(wù)和消費服務(wù)日益普遍，服務(wù)貿(mào)易成為國際貿(mào)易的重要組成部分，其中最為明顯的例證就是在世貿(mào)組織烏拉圭回合談判中達成了服務(wù)貿(mào)易總協(xié)定。此外，由于科學技術(shù)的發(fā)展，各國的技術(shù)合作日益密切，跨國技術(shù)轉(zhuǎn)讓和技術(shù)交易成為國際經(jīng)濟交往活動的重要組成部分，技術(shù)也成為了國際貿(mào)易的重要對象。3國際貿(mào)易是平等主體之間的等價有償交易國際貿(mào)易是一方交付貨物、服務(wù)或技術(shù)給另一方，另一方接受貨物、技術(shù)或服務(wù)并向其支付價款的商事交易行為，雙方的地位是

4、平等的。這一特征使國際貿(mào)易與國際捐贈、國際援助等區(qū)別開來。（二）國際貿(mào)易的分類按照不同的標準，可以對國際貿(mào)易做如下不同的分類。1出口貿(mào)易、進口貿(mào)易和過境貿(mào)易(export trade, import trade and transit trade)出口貿(mào)易是將本國的商品、技術(shù)和服務(wù)銷往他國市場的貿(mào)易活動；進口貿(mào)易則是將他國的商品、技術(shù)和服務(wù)輸入本國市場的貿(mào)易活動。一國對從外國進口的商品不經(jīng)任何實質(zhì)性加工改造即再行向其他國家出口，稱為復出口（reexport）；反之，一國的產(chǎn)品銷往他國后未經(jīng)實質(zhì)性的加工改造又被該國重新輸入，則稱為復進口。一個國家在一定時期內(nèi)的出口總額與進口總額之間的差額叫作貿(mào)易

5、差額（balance of trade）。貿(mào)易順差或出超（favourable balance of trade， trade surplus）是指出口總額超過進口總額，反之，則是貿(mào)易逆差或入超（unfavourable balance of trade， trade deficit）則是指進口的總額超過出口的總額。若出口總額與進口總額相等，則為貿(mào)易平衡。在一定時期內(nèi)，一個國家或地區(qū)在某種商品或服務(wù)大類的對外貿(mào)易中，進口量大于出口量的部分為凈進口（net import），反之則為凈出口（net export）。過境貿(mào)易是指貿(mào)易貨物通過一國國境不經(jīng)加工改制就運往另一國的貿(mào)易活動。以貨物是否經(jīng)過境

6、國海關(guān)保稅倉庫存放，過境貿(mào)易分為直接過境貿(mào)易（貨物不在過境國海關(guān)保稅倉庫存放）和間接過境貿(mào)易。2有形貿(mào)易和無形貿(mào)易(visible trade and invisible trade)有形貿(mào)易是指國際貿(mào)易中的貨物貿(mào)易。無形貿(mào)易是指不同國家或地區(qū)之間進行的以無形商品為交易對象的貿(mào)易活動，包括服務(wù)貿(mào)易和技術(shù)貿(mào)易等。服務(wù)貿(mào)易是無形貿(mào)易的主要形式。國際服務(wù)貿(mào)易有四種形式：（1）過境交付（cross-border supply），即在一國境內(nèi)向他國境內(nèi)的消費者提供服務(wù)，如國際電信服務(wù)；（2）境外消費（consumption abroad），即一國的消費者在他國境內(nèi)接受他服務(wù)提供者提供的服務(wù)，如國際旅游；

7、（3）商業(yè)存在(commercial presence)，即一國的自然人或法人通過在他國境內(nèi)設(shè)立的提供服務(wù)的實體向他國境內(nèi)的消費者提供服務(wù)，如在我國的外資銀行對我國居民提供金融服務(wù)；（4）自然人流動(movement of personnel)，即一國的自然人在他國境內(nèi)提供服務(wù)，如勞務(wù)輸出。3直接貿(mào)易、間接貿(mào)易和轉(zhuǎn)口貿(mào)易(entrepot trade)依據(jù)有無第三方參與，國際貿(mào)易可以分為直接貿(mào)易、間接貿(mào)易和轉(zhuǎn)口貿(mào)易。直接貿(mào)易是指貿(mào)易商品由生產(chǎn)國直接運銷到消費國，沒有第三國參與的貿(mào)易。簡間接貿(mào)易是指通過第三國或其他中間環(huán)節(jié)將商品從生產(chǎn)國運銷到消費國的貿(mào)易。轉(zhuǎn)口貿(mào)易是指一國進口某種商品不是以消費為

8、目的，而是將其作為商品再出口到其他國家的貿(mào)易。商品生產(chǎn)國和消費國通過第三國進行的貿(mào)易，對生產(chǎn)國和消費國而言是間接貿(mào)易，對于該第三國而言則是轉(zhuǎn)口貿(mào)易。4陸路貿(mào)易、海路貿(mào)易、空運貿(mào)易和郵購貿(mào)易(trade by roadway, seaway, airway and mail order)5自由結(jié)匯貿(mào)易和易貨貿(mào)易(free liquidation trade and barter trade)在國際貿(mào)易中，凡是以貨幣計價并以貨幣作為清算工具的貿(mào)易就是自由結(jié)匯貿(mào)易，而以貨物經(jīng)過計價作為清算工具的貿(mào)易，就是易貨貿(mào)易。6單證貿(mào)易和無紙貿(mào)易(trade with documents and trade w

9、ithout document)二、國際貿(mào)易法概述國際貿(mào)易法的歷史非常悠久，可以追溯到古羅馬調(diào)整公民與非羅馬公民之間以及非羅馬公民相互之間的貨物貿(mào)易關(guān)系的萬民法和中世紀時期的國際商人習慣法。作為國際經(jīng)濟法的一個分支，國際貿(mào)易法體系則是在第二次世界大戰(zhàn)以后，聯(lián)合國國際貿(mào)易法委員會對先前的國際商人習慣法進行系統(tǒng)的編撰、制定和通過了一系列有關(guān)國際貿(mào)易的統(tǒng)一實體法公約以及GTTS和WTO等協(xié)調(diào)和管理國際貿(mào)易的國際經(jīng)濟組織的建立的基礎(chǔ)上而逐步建立和完善起來的。（一）國際貿(mào)易法的概念和體系結(jié)構(gòu)對于國際貿(mào)易法的概念，我國學者的表述不盡相同。一般認為，國際貿(mào)易法是調(diào)整國際貿(mào)易關(guān)系以及與國際貿(mào)易有關(guān)的其他關(guān)系的

10、法律規(guī)范的總和。具體而言，國際貿(mào)易關(guān)系是指不同國家或地區(qū)的私人主體之間為交換商品、技術(shù)和服務(wù)而形成的關(guān)系，包括國際貨物買賣關(guān)系、國際技術(shù)轉(zhuǎn)讓關(guān)系和國際服務(wù)貿(mào)易關(guān)系。這些國際貿(mào)易關(guān)系都是平等的私人主體之間的關(guān)系。與國際貿(mào)易有關(guān)的其他關(guān)系包括如下幾種關(guān)系：一是為便利國際貿(mào)易的順利進行而提供的運輸、保險、支付結(jié)算服務(wù)，由此在運輸公司、保險公司以及銀行同國際貿(mào)易當事人之間建立起來的國際貨物運輸關(guān)系、國際貨物運輸保險關(guān)系、國際貿(mào)易支付關(guān)系，這些關(guān)系仍然是平等的私人主體之間的關(guān)系；二是出口國政府和進口國政府在管理對外貿(mào)易活動的過程中在國家與國際貿(mào)易當事人之間形成的國際貿(mào)易管理關(guān)系，在這種關(guān)系中，一方是管理

11、者，一方是被管理者，二者的法律地位不平等；三是為了消除國際貿(mào)易壁壘促進國際貿(mào)易自由化，協(xié)調(diào)個國貿(mào)易政策而形成的國家與國家之間的國際貿(mào)易政策協(xié)調(diào)關(guān)系。調(diào)整這些關(guān)系的法律制度都屬于國際貿(mào)易法的范疇。根據(jù)上述對國際貿(mào)易法調(diào)整對象的分析，國際貿(mào)易法的內(nèi)容應(yīng)當包括：（1）調(diào)整平等私人主體之間的國際貨物貿(mào)易關(guān)系、國際技術(shù)貿(mào)易關(guān)系、國際服務(wù)貿(mào)易關(guān)系、國際運輸關(guān)系、國際運輸保險關(guān)系和國際貿(mào)易支付關(guān)系的國際貨物貿(mào)易法、國際技術(shù)貿(mào)易法、國際服務(wù)貿(mào)易法、國際貨物運輸法、國際貨物運輸保險法和國際貿(mào)易支付法；（2）調(diào)整國際貿(mào)易管理關(guān)系的國際貿(mào)易管理法，即國家管理對外貿(mào)易的法律制度；（3）協(xié)調(diào)各國貿(mào)易政策的國際法律制度，

12、主要的是世界貿(mào)易組織的法律制度。（二）國際貿(mào)易法的淵源根據(jù)前面對國際貿(mào)易法的調(diào)整對象和國際貿(mào)易法的主要內(nèi)容的分析，我認為國際貿(mào)易法的淵源有以下幾種；1國際條約作為國際貿(mào)易法的淵源的國際條約主要有兩大類。一類是直接調(diào)整作為平等主體的國際貿(mào)易及相關(guān)活動的當事人彼此之間的權(quán)利義務(wù)關(guān)系的國際公約，如有關(guān)國際貨物買賣的聯(lián)合國國際貨物銷售合同公約、有關(guān)國際海上貨物運輸?shù)慕y(tǒng)一提單的若干法律規(guī)則的國際公約（海牙規(guī)則、修改統(tǒng)一提單的若干法律規(guī)則的國際公約的議定書（維斯比規(guī)則和聯(lián)合國海上貨物運輸公約（漢堡規(guī)則、有關(guān)國際航空運輸?shù)娜A沙公約和蒙特利爾公約等。另一類是調(diào)整國家與國家之間的貿(mào)易關(guān)系和協(xié)調(diào)各個國家的貿(mào)易政策

13、的國際條約或公約，如雙邊或多邊的自由貿(mào)易協(xié)定、世界貿(mào)易組織的一系列協(xié)定。2國際貿(mào)易慣例國際貿(mào)易慣例是指在長期的國際貿(mào)易實踐中逐漸形成的一些通行的習慣做法和通例。國際貿(mào)易慣例的特點是：（1）它是經(jīng)過長期的反復實踐而形成的；（2）具有確定的內(nèi)容并被相關(guān)行業(yè)的商人們普遍接受和采用，相信其具有法律約束力；（3）它是任意性的規(guī)范而不是強制性的規(guī)范，只有在當事人選擇適用的時候才對當事人具有約束力，當事人可以選擇適用某一國際貿(mào)易慣例，也可以不選擇適用，在選擇適用時還可以變更其內(nèi)容。國際貿(mào)易慣例最初都是以不成文的形式存在的。上世紀以來，在國際商會等民間國際機構(gòu)的主持下，對一些重要的國際貿(mào)易慣例進行了系統(tǒng)的編撰

14、，出現(xiàn)了國際貿(mào)易慣例成文化的趨向。比較重要的成文化的國際貿(mào)易慣例有國際貿(mào)易術(shù)語解釋通則、托收統(tǒng)一規(guī)則、跟單信用證統(tǒng)一慣例等。由于國際貿(mào)易慣例是商人們?yōu)榱舜_定彼此之間的權(quán)利義務(wù)在國際貿(mào)易實踐中逐步確立的，因此，國際貿(mào)易慣例只調(diào)整平等主體之間的國際貿(mào)易交易關(guān)系。3國內(nèi)法作為國際貿(mào)易法淵源的國內(nèi)法主要有兩大類。一類是調(diào)整平等主體之間的經(jīng)濟交易關(guān)系的法律，如民法、商法、合同法等，尤其是這些法律中的涉外部分。另一類是有關(guān)國家管理對外貿(mào)易的法律法規(guī)，如外貿(mào)法、海關(guān)法、關(guān)稅法、動植物檢驗檢疫法等。此外，教材列舉的國際貿(mào)易法的淵源還有國際組織的宣言決議以及跨國公司及同業(yè)公會制定的標準合同。（三）國際貿(mào)易法的基

15、本原則1貿(mào)易自由化與適度貿(mào)易保護相結(jié)合的原則國際經(jīng)濟學理論告訴我們，就整個世界而言，自由貿(mào)易能夠在世界范圍內(nèi)實現(xiàn)資源的合理配置，達到增進各國福利，提高人民生活水平的目的。（圖示說明）因此，作為調(diào)整國家管理對外貿(mào)易以及協(xié)調(diào)各國貿(mào)易政策的法律制度的國際貿(mào)易法應(yīng)當廣泛承認國際貿(mào)易合同雙方當事人的自主權(quán)利，逐步削減關(guān)稅和非關(guān)稅壁壘，逐步實現(xiàn)貨物、技術(shù)和服務(wù)在全球范圍內(nèi)的自由流動。當然，這只是國際貿(mào)易法所追求的一個長遠目標。另一方面，各國為了本國經(jīng)濟的發(fā)展，尤其是本國幼稚產(chǎn)業(yè)的發(fā)展，維護本國的經(jīng)濟安全，維持國際收支平衡，又總是在一定程度上維持關(guān)稅和非關(guān)稅壁壘，限制外國商品的輸入，實行一定的貿(mào)易保護政策。

16、WTO就是自由貿(mào)易和貿(mào)易保護相結(jié)合的。2平等互利、協(xié)商一致的原則這一原則既適用于處理國家與國家之間在貿(mào)易方面的關(guān)系，也適用于國家對對外貿(mào)易的管理，還適用于處理貿(mào)易合同雙方當事人之間的關(guān)系。在處理國家與國家之間的貿(mào)易關(guān)系方面，本著主權(quán)平等的原則，國家不分大小強弱，都有平等地參與國際貿(mào)易并從國際貿(mào)易的發(fā)展中獲得利益的權(quán)利；在決定和處理國家之間的重大國際貿(mào)易政策問題時，相關(guān)國家應(yīng)平等協(xié)商，在協(xié)商一致的基礎(chǔ)上達成協(xié)議，任何一方都不得把自己的意志強加給另一方；在處理國家之間的貿(mào)易爭端問題上，應(yīng)首先通過平等協(xié)商，在互惠互利的基礎(chǔ)上尋求解決辦法，而不能動輒訴諸貿(mào)易報復或貿(mào)易制裁。在國家管理對外貿(mào)易方面，國家

17、應(yīng)當對在其境內(nèi)或與其進行正當貿(mào)易的所有外國國民和產(chǎn)品給予同等對待，對本國國民、產(chǎn)品與外國公民和產(chǎn)品給予同等對待。在貿(mào)易合同雙方當事人的關(guān)系方面，合同雙方當事人不論其來自于哪一個國家，不論其財力和實力如何，雙方的地位都是平等的，在雙方協(xié)商一致的基礎(chǔ)上訂立合同，各方的權(quán)利義務(wù)應(yīng)當對等，各方都有權(quán)得到他們期望從合同的簽定和履行中得到的利益。調(diào)整國際貨物貿(mào)易的法律規(guī)范一、聯(lián)合國國際貨物銷售合同公約（United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods，CISG)CISG是聯(lián)合國貿(mào)易與發(fā)展會議在統(tǒng)一國際貿(mào)易法

18、領(lǐng)域取得的最重要的成果之一。該公約于1980年3月在由有62個國家的代表參加的維也納外交會議上通過，并于1988年1月1日生效?，F(xiàn)在世界上有70多個國家和地區(qū)加入了該公約，公約成員國的貿(mào)易量占到世界貿(mào)易總量的2/3。中國于1981年9月30日簽署了該公約，于1986年12月11日交存了批準書。公約由一個序文、四個部分，共101條組成。公約的適用范圍1合同國際性的確定公約第1條第1款規(guī)定：“營業(yè)地位于不同國家的當事人之間的貨物銷售適用本公約：（A）如果這些國家都是公約的締約國；或（B）如果國際私法規(guī)范指引適用某一締約國的法律?！边@是公約有關(guān)合同的“國際性”的規(guī)定。在確定合同是否是國際合同時，“營

19、業(yè)地”是唯一的考慮因素，其它諸如當事人的國籍、當事人或合同的民商事性質(zhì)等都不予考慮。如果當事人的營業(yè)地都位于不同的締約國，或者雖然當事人的營業(yè)地位于不同的國家，其中一個或兩個國家不是公約的締約國，但法院地的沖突規(guī)范指引適用某一締約國的法律，公約都適用。當事人營業(yè)地位于不同國家之事實，如果從合同，或者從訂立合同之前或之時當事人之間的任何交易或當事人透露的信息均看不出，則應(yīng)不予考慮。也就是說，當事人營業(yè)地位于不同國家之事實只能由合同本身或者簽訂合同之前或當時當事人彼此公布的材料、文件或信息予以證明。如果當事人有一個以上的營業(yè)地，則以與合同及合同的履行關(guān)系最密切的營業(yè)地為其營業(yè)地，但要考慮到雙方當事

20、人在訂立合同前任何時候或訂立合同時所知道或所設(shè)想的情況。如果當事人沒有營業(yè)地，則以當事人的慣常居所為準。2貨物公約沒有直接定義“貨物”，而是列舉了不屬于公約管轄的幾類貨物銷售。公約排除了六類特定的貨物銷售.。公約第二條規(guī)定：“本公約不適用于以下的銷售：（A）供私人、家人或家庭使用的貨物的銷售，除非賣方在訂立合同前任何時候或訂立合同時不知道而且沒有理由知道這些貨物是購供任何這種使用；（B）經(jīng)由拍賣的銷售；（C）根據(jù)執(zhí)行令或其他法律令狀而進行的銷售；（D）股票、股份、投資證券、流通票據(jù)的銷售；（E）船舶、氣墊船和飛機的銷售；（F）電力的銷售?！?公約不適用之情形公約第3到第5條進一步規(guī)定了公約不適

21、用的一些特定情形：（A）由買方提供主要部分的原材料的尚待生產(chǎn)制造的貨物的銷售；（B）提供貨物的一方的主要義務(wù)是提供勞務(wù)或其它服務(wù)的合同；（C）合同、合同條款或慣例的效力；（D）合同對所售貨物的所有權(quán)可能產(chǎn)生的效力；（E）賣方對所售貨物對任何人造成的死亡或人身傷害的責任。4公約的選擇適用和排除適用雖然當事人位于不同的締約國之事實或法院地的法律選擇規(guī)范都可以導致公約的適用，但合同當事人可以通過法律選擇條款排除或修改公約的適用。當事人能否通過法律選擇條款排除國內(nèi)法的適用而選擇適用公約則取決審理案件的國家的法律制度。公約的主要內(nèi)容公約第二和第三部分詳細規(guī)定了國際貨物買賣合同的訂立、雙方當事人的權(quán)利和義

22、務(wù)、違約救濟等內(nèi)容，我們將在下面幾節(jié)詳細介紹。二、國際貿(mào)易術(shù)語解釋通則2000（Incoterms 2000）自國際商會1936年第一次頒布國際貿(mào)易術(shù)語解釋通則以來，為保持與國際貿(mào)易的發(fā)展同步，這一世界公認的合同標準一直在定期更新。國際貿(mào)易術(shù)語解釋通則2000是根據(jù)自由貿(mào)易區(qū)的近期發(fā)展、電子商務(wù)的普及和運輸實踐的變化而修訂的。國際貿(mào)易術(shù)語解釋通則2000對全部13個貿(mào)易術(shù)語都做了修改，其表述國家簡潔明了。正如起草者在序言中所指出的那樣，通則使得國際貿(mào)易活動更加便利。在國際貿(mào)易合同中使用通則能夠清晰界定當事人各自的義務(wù)，降低不同法律制度的風險（一）“E” TERMThere is only on

23、e term in group E, EXW.(.named place)“Ex works means that the seller delivers when he places the goods at the disposal of the buyer at the seller s premises or another named place ( i. e. factory, warehouse, etc. ) neither cleared for export nor loaded on any collecting vehicle. This term thus repre

24、sents the minimum obligation for the seller, and tile buyer has to bear all costs and risks involved in taking the goods from the sellers premises. However, if the parties wish the seller to be responsible for the loading of the goods on departure and to bear the risks and all the costs of such load

25、ing, this should be made clear by adding explicit wording to this effect in the contract of sale. This term should not be used when the buyer cannot carry out the export formalities directly or indirectly. In such circumstances, the FCA term should be used, provided the seller agrees that he will lo

26、ad at his cost and risk.This term applies to any mode or transportation.（二）“F”TERMS The F terms require the seller to deliver the goods, cleared for export, for carriage as instructed by the buyer. There are three terms in this group.1FCA: FREE CARRIER (. named place)Free Carrier means that the sell

27、er delivers the goods, cleared for export, to the carrier nominated by the buyer at the named place. It should be noted that the chosen place of delivery has an impact on the obligations of loading and unloading the goods at that place. If delivery occurs at the sellers premises, the seller is respo

28、nsible for loading. If delivery occurs at any other place, the seller is not responsible for unloading.This term may be used irrespective of the mode of transport, including multimodal transport. Carrier means any person who, in a contract of carriage, undertakes to perform or to procure the perform

29、ance of transport by rail, road, air, sea, inland waterway or by a combination of such modes.If the buyer nominates a person other than a carrier to receive the goods, the seller is deemed to have fulfilled his obligation to deliver the goods when they are delivered to that person.2FAS: FREE ALONGSI

30、DE SHIP (named port of shipment)“Free Alongside Ship” means that the seller delivers when the goods are placed alongside the vessel at the named port of shipment. This means that the buyer has to bear all costs and risks of loss of or damage to the goods from that moment.The FAS term requires the se

31、ller to clear the goods for export. THIS IS A REVERSAL FROM PREVIOUS INCOTERMS VERSIONS WHICH REQUIRED THE BUYER TO ARRANGE FOR EXPORT CLEARANCE. However, if the parties wish the buyer to clear the goods for export, this should be made clear by adding explicit wording to this effect in the contract

32、of sale.This term can be used only for sea or inland waterway transport.3FOB: FREE ON BOARD(. named port of shipment)“Free on Board means that the seller delivers when the goods pass the ships rail at the named port of shipment. This means that the buyer has to bear all costs and risks of loss of or

33、 damage to the goods from that point. The FOB term requires the seller to clear the goods for export. This term can be used only for sea or inland waterway transport. If the parties do not intend to deliver the goods across the ships rail, the FCA term should be used.All these three F terms require

34、the seller to clear the goods for export and place the goods at the named point or port, require the buyer to contract for transportation and insurance,.（三）“C” TERMSThe “C terms require the seller to contract for carriage on usual terms at his own expense. Therefore, a point up to which he would hav

35、e to pay transport costs must necessarily be indicated after the respective C term. Under the CIF and CIP terms, the seller also has to take out insurance and bear the insurance cost. Since the point for the division of costs is fixed at a point in the country of destination, the C terms are frequen

36、tly mistakenly believed to be arrival contracts, in which the seller would bear all risks and costs until the goods have actually arrived at the arrival point. However, it must be stressed that the C terms are of the same nature as the F terms in that the seller fulfils the contract in the country o

37、f shipment or dispatch. Thus, the contracts of sale under the C terms, like the contracts under the F” terms, fall within the category of shipment contracts.It is in the nature of shipment contracts that, while the seller is bound to pay the normal transport cost for the carriage of the goods by a u

38、sual route and in a customary manner to the agreed place, the risk of loss of or damage to the goods, as well as additional costs resulting from events occurring after the goods having been appropriately delivered for carriage, fall upon the buyer. Hence, the C terms are distinguishable from all oth

39、er terms in that they contain two critical points, one indicating the point to which the seller is bound to arrange and bear the costs of a contract of carriage and another one for the allocation of risk. For this reason, the greatest caution must be observed when adding obligations of the seller to

40、 the C terms which seek to extend the sellers responsibility beyond the aforementioned critical point for the allocation of risk. It is of the very essence of the C terms that the seller is relieved of any further risk and cost after he has duly fulfilled his contract by contracting for carriage ari

41、d handing over the goods to the carrier and by providing for insurance under the CIF and CIP terms.There are four terms in this group1CFR: COST AND FREIGHT( . named port of destination)“Cost and Freight” means that the seller delivers when the goods pass the ship s rail in the port of shipment. The

42、seller must pay the costs and freight necessary to bring the goods to the named port of destination BUT the risk of loss of or damage to the goods, as well as any additional costs due to events occurring after the time of delivery, are transferred from the seller to the buyer.The CFR term requires t

43、he seller to clear the goods for export and the buyer to clear the goods for import.This term can be used only for sea and inland waterway transport. If the parties do not intend to deliver the goods across the ships rail, the CPT term should be used.2 CIF: COST, INSURANCE AND FREIGHT(. named port o

44、f destination)“Cost, Insurance and Freight means that the seller delivers when the goods pass the ships rail in the port of shipment. The seller must pay the costs and freight necessary to bring the goods to the named port of destination BUT the risk of loss of or damage to the goods, as well as any

45、 additional costs due to events occurring after the time of delivery, are transferred from the seller to the buyer. However, in CIF the seller also has to procure marine insurance against the buyers risk of loss of or damage to the goods during the carriage. Consequently, the seller contracts for in

46、surance and pays the insurance premium. The buyer should note that under the CIF term the seller is required to obligation insurance only on minimum cover. Should the buyer wish to have the protection of greater cover, he would either need to agree as such expressly with the seller or to make his ow

47、n extra insurance arrangements.The CIF term requires the seller to clear the goods for export and the buyer to clear the goods for import.This term can be used only for sea and inland waterway transport. If the parties intend to deliver the goods across the ships rail, the CIP term should be used.3C

48、PT: CARRIAGE PAID TO (.named place of destination) Carriage paid to . means that the seller delivers the goods to the carrier nominated by him, but the seller must in addition pay the cost of carriage necessary to bring the goods to the named destination. This means that the buyer bears all risks an

49、d any other costs occurring after the goods have been so delivered.Carrier means, who, in a contract of carriage, undertakes to perform or to procure the performance of transport, by rail, road, air, sea, inland waterway or by a combination of such modes. If subsequent carriers are used for the carr

50、iage to the agreed destination, the risk passes when the goods have been delivered to the first carrier.The CPT term requires the seller to clear the goods for export.This term may be used irrespective of the mode of transport including multimodal transport.4CIP: CARRIAGE AND INSURANCE PAID TO ( . n

51、amed place of destination)“Carriage and Insurance paid to.” means that the seller delivers the goods to the carrier nominated by him but the seller must m addition pay the cost of carriage necessary to bring the goods to the named destination. This means that the buyer bears all risks and any additi

52、onal costs occurring after the goods have been so delivered. However, in CIP the seller also has to procure insurance against the buyers risk of loss of or damage to the goods during the carriage. Consequently, the seller contracts for insurance and pays the insurance premium. The buyer should note

53、that under the CIP term the seller is required to obtain insurance only on minimum cover1. Should the buyer wish to have the protection of greater cover, he would either need to agree as such expressly with the seller or to make his own extra insurance arrangements.If subsequent carriers are used fo

54、r the carriage to the agreed destination, the risk passes when the goods have been delivered to the first carrier.The CIP term requires the seller to clear the goods for export and the buye to clear the goods for import.This term may be used irrespective of the mode of transport including multimodal

55、 transport.（四）“D” TermsThe D terms are different in nature from the C terms, since the seller according to the D terms is responsible for the arrival of the goods at the agreed place or point of destination at the border or within the country of import. The seller must bear all risks and costs in br

56、inging the goods thereto. Hence, the D terms signify arrival contracts, while the C terms evidence departure (shipment) contracts.1DAF: DELIVERED AT FRONTIER (. named place)Delivered at Frontier means that the seller delivers when the goods are placed at the disposal of the buyer on the arriving mea

57、ns of transport not unloaded, cleared for export, but not cleared for import at the named point and place at the frontier, but before the customs border of the adjoining country.The term frontier may be used for any frontier including that of the country of export. Therefore, it is of vital importan

58、ce that the frontier in question be defined precisely by always naming the point and place in the term.If the parties wish the seller to be responsible for the unloading of the goods form the arriving means of transport and to bear the risks and costs of unloading, this should be made clear by addin

59、g explicit wording to this effect in the contract of sales.This term may be used irrespective of the mode of transport when goods are to be delivered at a land frontier. When delivery is to take place in the port of destination, on board a vessel or on the quay (wharf), the DES or DEQ terms should b

60、e used.2DES: DELIVERED EX SHIP (. named port of destination)Delivered Ex Ship means that the seller delivers when the goods are placed at the disposal of the buyer on board the ship not cleared for import at named port of destination. The seller has to bear all the costs and risks involved in bringi