語言學Chapter-sound教學講解課件

ChapterTwo

SpeechSoundsChapterTwo2Ashumanbeingswearecapableofmakingallkindsofsounds,butonlysomeofthesesoundshavebecomeunitsinthelanguagesystem.Wecananalyzespeechsoundsfromvariousperspectivesandthetwomajorareasofstudyarephoneticsandphonology.2Ashumanbeingswearecapabl3Phoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmitted,andperceived.Speechproduction(SpeakerA)Speechperception(SpeakerB)3Phoneticsstudieshowspeech4ArticulatoryPhoneticsisthestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds.AcousticPhoneticsisthestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds.PerceptualorAuditoryPhoneticsisconcernedwiththeperceptionofspeechsounds.4ArticulatoryPhoneticsisthe5Phonologyisthestudyofthesoundpatternsandsoundsystemsoflanguages.Itaimsto‘discovertheprinciplesthatgovernthewaysoundsareorganizedinlanguages,andtoexplainthevariationsthatoccur’.Inphonologywenormallybeginbyanalyzinganindividuallanguage,sayEnglish,inordertodetermineitsphonologicalstructure,i.e.whichsoundunitsareusedandhowtheyareputtogether.Thenwecomparethepropertiesofsoundsystemsindifferentlanguagesinordertomakehypothesesabouttherulesthatunderlietheuseofsoundsinthem,andultimatelyweaimtodiscovertherulesthatunderliethesoundpatternsofalllanguages.5Phonologyisthestudyofthe61.Howspeechsoundsaremade1.1SpeechorgansMacMahon(1990:7)61.Howspeechsoundsaremade7MacMahon(1990:7)7MacMahon(1990:7)8MacMahon(1990:7)8MacMahon(1990:7)9Positionofthevocalfolds:voicelessRoca&Johnson(1999:15)9Positionofthevocalfolds:10Positionofthevocalfolds:voicing(initial&thewidestaperture)Roca&Johnson(1999:16)10Positionofthevocalfolds:11Positionofthevocalfolds:

glottalstopRoca&Johnson(1999:22)11Positionofthevocalfolds:121.2TheIPAIn1886,thePhoneticTeachers’AssociationwasinauguratedbyasmallgroupoflanguageteachersinFrancewhohadfoundthepracticeofphoneticsusefulintheirteachingandwishedtopopularizetheirmethods.ItwaschangedtoitspresenttitleoftheInternationalPhoneticAssociation(IPA)in1897.121.2TheIPAIn1886,thePhon13OneofthefirstactivitiesoftheAssociationwastoproduceajournalinwhichthecontentswereprintedentirelyinphonetictranscription.TheideaofestablishingaphoneticalphabetwasfirstproposedbytheDanishgrammarianandphoneticianOttoJespersen(1860-1943)in1886,andthefirstversionoftheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(theIPAchart)waspublishedinAugust1888.13Oneofthefirstactivities14Itsmainprincipleswerethatthereshouldbeaseparateletterforeachdistinctivesound,andthatthesamesymbolshouldbeusedforthatsoundinanylanguageinwhichitappears.ThealphabetwastoconsistofasmanyRomanalphabetlettersaspossible,usingnewlettersanddiacriticsonlywhenabsolutelynecessary.Theseprinciplescontinuetobefollowedtoday.14Itsmainprinciplesweretha15TheInternational

PhoneticAlphabet(Revisedto2005)15TheInternational

PhoneticA1616171718181919202021212222232.Consonantsandvowels

Consonantsareproduced‘byaclosureinthevocaltract,orbyanarrowingwhichissomarkedthataircannotescapewithoutproducingaudiblefriction’.Bycontrast,avowelisproducedwithoutsuch‘stricture’sothat‘a(chǎn)irescapesinarelativelyunimpededwaythroughthemouthornose’.232.ConsonantsandvowelsCon24Thedistinctionbetweenvowelsandconsonantsliesintheobstructionofairstream.Asthereisnoobstructionofairintheproductionofvowels,thedescriptionoftheconsonantsandvowelscannotbedonealongthesamelines.24Thedistinctionbetweenvowe252.1Consonants

Intheproductionofconsonantsatleasttwoarticulatorsareinvolved.Forexample,theinitialsoundinbadinvolvesbothlipsanditsfinalsegmentinvolvestheblade(orthetip)ofthetongueandthealveolarridge.Thecategoriesofconsonant,therefore,areestablishedonthebasisofseveralfactors.252.1ConsonantsIntheproduc26Themannerofarticulationreferstowaysinwhicharticulationcanbeaccomplished:thearticulatorsmaycloseofftheoraltractforaninstantorarelativelylongperiod;theymaynarrowthespaceconsiderably;ortheymaysimplymodifytheshapeofthetractbyapproachingeachother.26Themannerofarticulationr27Stop(orPlosive)Oral&NasalFricative(Median)ApproximantLateral(Approximant)TrillTaporFlapAffricate27Stop(orPlosive)28Theplaceofarticulationreferstothepointwhereaconsonantismade.Practicallyconsonantsmaybeproducedatanyplacebetweenthelipsandthevocalfolds.ElevenplacesofarticulationaredistinguishedontheIPAchart:BilabialLabiodentalDentalAlveolarPostalveolarRetroflexPalatalVelarUvularPharyngealGlottal28Theplaceofarticulationre292.2Vowels

CardinalVowels,asexhibitedbythevoweldiagramintheIPAchart,areasetofvowelqualitiesarbitrarilydefined,fixedandunchanging,intendedtoprovideaframeofreferenceforthedescriptionoftheactualvowelsofexistinglanguages.292.2VowelsCardinalVowels,30Jones:AnOutlineofEnglishPhonetics(1918)Dark:IPARed:English30Jones:AnOutlineofEnglish313132Theproblematicareaisthattheinitialsoundinhotgiveslittleturbulence,dependingonhowforcefullyitissaid,andinyetandwettheinitialsegmentsareobviouslyvowels.Togetoutofthisproblem,theusualsolutionistosaythatthesesegmentsareneithervowelsnorconsonantsbutmidwaybetweenthetwocategories.Forthispurpose,theterm‘semi-vowel’isoftenused.32Theproblematicareaisthat33Languagesalsofrequentlymakeuseofadistinctionbetweenvowelswherethequalityremainsconstantthroughoutthearticulationandthosewherethereisanaudiblechangeofquality.Theformerareknownaspureormonophthongvowelsandthelatter,vowelglides.Ifasinglemovementofthetongueisinvolved,theglidesarecalleddiphthongs.

33Languagesalsofrequentlyma34Adoublemovementproducesatriphthong,whichis‘a(chǎn)glidefromonevoweltoanotherandthentoathird,allproducedrapidlyandwithoutinterruption’.Theyarereallydiphthongsfollowedbytheschwa[?],foundinEnglishwordslikewire[wa??]andtower[ta??].34Adoublemovementproducesa352.3ThesoundsofEnglish

ReceivedPronunciation(RP)GeneralAmerican(GA)Englishconsonants352.3ThesoundsofEnglishRe363637TheconsonantsofEnglishcanbedescribedinthefollowingmanner:[p]

voicelessbilabialstop[b]

voicedbilabialstop[s]

voicelessalveolarfricative[z]

voicedalveolarfricative37TheconsonantsofEnglishca38Englishvowels38Englishvowels393940ThedescriptionofEnglishvowelsneedstofulfillfourbasicrequirements:theheightoftongueraising(high,mid,low);thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue(front,central,back);thelengthortensenessofthevowel(tensevs.laxorlongvs.short),andlip-rounding(roundedvs.unrounded).40ThedescriptionofEnglishv41WecannowdescribetheEnglishvowelsinthisway:[

]highfronttenseunroundedvowel[

]highbacklaxroundedvowel[

]midcentrallaxunroundedvowel[

]lowbacklaxroundedvowel41WecannowdescribetheEngl423.FromphoneticstophonologySpeechisacontinuousprocess,sothevocalorgansdonotmovefromonesoundsegmenttothenextinaseriesofseparatesteps.Rather,soundscontinuallyshowtheinfluenceoftheirneighbors.Forexample,map,lamb.423.Fromphoneticstophonolo433.1CoarticulationWhensuchsimultaneousoroverlappingarticulationsareinvolved,wecalltheprocesscoarticulation.Ifthesoundbecomesmorelikethefollowingsound,asinthecaseoflamb,itisknownasanticipatorycoarticulation.Ifthesoundshowstheinfluenceoftheprecedingsound,itisperseverativecoarticulation,asisthecaseofmap.433.1CoarticulationWhensuch44Thefactthatthevowel[

]inlambhassomequalityofthefollowingnasalisaphenomenonwecallnasalization.Toindicatethatavowelhasbeennasalized,weaddadiacritictothetopofthesymbol[

],as[

].

44Thefactthatthevowel[]45[p]isaspiratedinpeakandunaspiratedinspeak.Thisaspiratedvoicelessbilabialstopisthusindicatedbythediacritic

h,as[ph],whereastheunaspiratedcounterpartistranscribedas[p].45[p]isaspiratedinpeakand46Whenweuseasimplesetofsymbolsinourtranscription,itiscalledabroadtranscription.Theuseofmorespecificsymbolstoshowmorephoneticdetailisreferredtoasanarrowtranscription.Botharephonetictranscriptionssoweputbothformsinsquarebrackets[].

46Whenweuseasimplesetof4747483.2Phonemes

Phonologyisnotspecificallyconcernedwiththephysicalpropertiesofthespeechproductionsystem.Phoneticiansareconcernedwithhowsoundsdifferinthewaytheyarepronouncedwhilephonologistsareinterestedinthepatterningofsuchsoundsandtherulesthatunderliesuchvariations.483.2PhonemesPhonologyisno49Crystal:‘Phonologicalanalysisreliesontheprinciplethatcertainsoundscausechangesinthemeaningofawordorphrase,whereasothersoundsdonot’.MinimalpairstestPhonemes

49Crystal:‘Phonologicalanaly505051Theword‘phoneme’simplyreferstoa‘unitofexplicitsoundcontrast’:theexistenceofaminimalpairautomaticallygrantsphonemicstatustothesoundsresponsibleforthecontrasts.Byselectingonetypeofsoundinsteadofanotherwecandistinguishonewordfromanother.51Theword‘phoneme’simplyre52Languagesdifferintheselectionofcontrastivesounds.InEnglish,thedistinctionbetweenaspirated[ph]andunaspirated[p]isnotphonemic.InChinese,however,thedistinctionbetween/p/and/ph/isphonemic.52Languagesdifferinthesele53Byconvention,phonemictranscriptionsareplacedbetweenslantlines(//)whilephonetictranscriptionsareplacedbetweensquarebrackets([]).Inphoneticterms,phonemictranscriptionsrepresentthe‘broad’transcriptions.53Byconvention,phonemictran543.3Allophones

InEnglish,[p,ph]aretwodifferentphonesandarevariantsofthephoneme/p/.Suchvariantsofaphonemearecalledallophonesofthesamephoneme.Inthiscasetheallophonesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistributionbecausetheyneveroccurinthesamecontext:[p]occursafter[s]while[ph]occursinotherplaces.543.3AllophonesInEnglish,[55/p/

[p]/

[s]_____ [ph]elsewhereThisphenomenonofvariationinthepronunciationofphonemesindifferentpositionsiscalledallophonyorallophonicvariation.

55/p/ [p]/

[s]_____56Velarization:clearlanddarkl /

/

[

]/_____V [

]/V_____Thinkabouttellandtelling!56Velarization:clearlandda57Phoneticsimilarity:theallophonesofaphonememustbearsomephoneticresemblance.Freevariantsandfreevariation57Phoneticsimilarity:theall584.Phonologicalprocesses,phonologicalrulesanddistinctivefeatures

4.1Assimilation584.Phonologicalprocesses,p59Nasalization,dentalization,andvelarizationareallinstancesofassimilation,aprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound.Ifafollowingsoundisinfluencingaprecedingsound,wecallitregressiveassimilation.Theconverseprocess,inwhichaprecedingsoundisinfluencingafollowingsound,isknownasprogressiveassimilation.59Nasalization,dentalization,60EnglishFricativeDevoicing60EnglishFricativeDevoicing61/v/[f]/z/[s]etc.voicedfricativevoiceless/____voicelessNasalizationrule: [-nasal][+nasal]/____[+nasal]Dentalizationrule: [-dental][dental]/____[dental]Velarizationrule: [-velar][+velar]/____[+velar]61/v/[f]/z/[s]etc.624.2Epenthesis,ruleorderingand

theElsewhereCondition

ahotel,aboy,ause,awagon,abigman,ayellowrug,awhitehouseanapple,anhonor,anorangecurtain,anoldlady

Epenthesis(Insertion)Rule:624.2Epenthesis,ruleorderin63PluralsinEnglish63PluralsinEnglish6464656566a.The[

]appearsaftervoicelesssounds.b.The[

]appearsaftervoicedsounds.c.The[

]appearsaftersibilants./

/

[

]/[–voice,C]_____(Devoicing)

[

]/[+sibilant]_____[

](Epenthesis)66a.The[]appearsaftervoi67Ruleordering67Ruleordering68TheElsewhereCondition Themorespecificruleappliesfirst.68TheElsewhereCondition694.3Distinctivefeatures

TheideaofDistinctiveFeatureswasfirstdevelopedbyRomanJacobson(1896-1982)inthe1940sasameansofworkingoutasetofphonologicalcontrastsoroppositionstocaptureparticularaspectsoflanguagesounds.Sincethenseveralversionshavebeensuggested.694.3DistinctivefeaturesThe70Someofthemajordistinctionsinclude[consonantal],[sonorant],[nasal]and[voiced].Thefeature[consonantal]candistinguishbetweenconsonantsandvowels,soallconsonantsare[+consonantal]andallvowels[–consonantal].[sonorant]distinguishesbetweenwhatwecallobstruents(stops,fricativesandaffricates)andsonorants(allotherconsonantsandvowels),withobstruentsbeing[–sonorant]andothers[+sonorant].[nasal]and[voiced]ofcoursedistinguishnasal(includingnasalized)soundsandvoicedsoundsrespectively.70Someofthemajordistinctio71Theseareknownasbinary

featuresbecausewecangroupthemintotwocategories:onewiththisfeatureandtheotherwithout.Binaryfeatureshavetwovaluesorspecificationsdenotedby‘

+

’and‘

–

’sovoicedobstruentsaremarked[+voiced]andvoicelessobstruentsaremarked[–voiced].71Theseareknownasbinaryfe72Theplacefeaturesarenotbinaryfeatures–theyaredividedupintofourvalues:[PLACE:Labial][PLACE:Coronal][PLACE:Dorsal][PLACE:Radical]Theyareoftenwritteninshorthandformsas[Labial]p[Coronal]p[Dorsal]p[Radical]p72Theplacefeaturesarenotb73Distinctivefeaturematrixfor

Englishconsonantphonemes

pbtdkgfvθesz??hmn?wlrj??consonantal＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋－＋＋－＋＋approximant－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－＋＋＋＋－－sonorant－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－＋＋＋＋＋＋＋－－continuant－－－－－－＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋－－－＋＋＋＋–/+–/+strident

＋＋－－＋＋＋＋－

＋＋nasal－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－＋＋＋－－－－－－lateral－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－＋－－－－voiced－＋－＋－＋－＋－＋－＋－＋－＋＋＋＋＋＋＋－＋[PLACE]LLCCDDLLCCCCCCRLCDLCCCCCanterior

＋＋

＋＋＋＋－－

＋

＋＋－－－73Distinctivefeaturematrixf74Ausefulfeatureforconsonantsnotfoundhereis[±spread](for‘spreadglottis’),whichdistinguishesbetween‘a(chǎn)spirated’and‘unaspirated’voicelessobstruents.Aspiratedsoundsare[+spread]andunaspiratedsoundsare[–spread].Nowwecanrepresenttherulethatgovernstheunaspirationof/p/after[s]intermsoffeatures:74Ausefulfeatureforconsona75Thisisamoregeneralrule,whichalsoappliesto/t/and/k/.Itmeansthat/p,t,k/([–voiced,–cont])areallunaspirated([–spread])after[s]andaspirated([+spread])inallotherpositions.75Thisisamoregeneralrule,76PasttenseformsinEnglish

stopped,walked,coughed,kissed,leashed,reachedstabbed,wagged,achieved,buzzed,soothed,bridgedsteamed,stunned,pulledplayed,flowed,studiedwanted,located,decided,guided76PasttenseformsinEnglish77TheregularpasttenseforminEnglishispronouncedas[t]whenthewordendswithavoicelessconsonant,[d]whenitendswithavoicedsound,and[?d]whenitendswith[t]or[d].77Theregularpasttenseform785.Suprasegmentals

Suprasegmentalfeaturesarethoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprincipalsuprasegmentalsare:SyllableStressToneIntonation785.SuprasegmentalsSuprasegm795.1Thesyllablestructure

σOnsetRimeNucleusCodakr?kt795.1Thesyllablestructureσ80Opensyllable:

bar,tieClosedsyllable:

bard,tiedEnglishSyllable:(((C)C)C)V((((C)C)C)C)Chinesesyllable:(C)V(C)MaximalOnsetPrinciple(MOP)Whenthereisachoiceastowheretoplaceaconsonant,itisputintotheonsetratherthanthecoda.80Opensyllable:bar,tie815.2Stress

Stressreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.Intranscription,araisedverticalline[│]isoftenusedjustbeforethesyllableitrelatesto.Abasicdistinctionismadebetweenstressedandunstressedsyllables,theformerbeingmoreprominentthanthelatter,whichmeansthatstressisarelativenotion.815.2StressStressr