【大二英語(yǔ)】【中國(guó)文化概況】中國(guó)文化概況期末資料

Chapter1AGeneralIntroductiontoChineseCultureWordsandExpressions:thedescendantsofYanandHuang炎黃子孫porcelain瓷器TheappellationofChinaChinesehistorybeganwithtwolegendaryfigures—EmperorHuangandEmperorYan,who,togetherwiththeirtribes,inhabitedthedrainageareaalongthemiddlereaches〔中游〕oftheYellowRiver.BythetimeofXiaDynasty,aftercenturiesoflivingsidebyside,thesetwotribeshadgraduallymergedinto〔合并，融合〕one.Consequently,theChinesepeopleusuallycallthemselves“thedescendantsofYanandHuang〞.Peopleatthattimebelievedthatthelandtheylivedonwasthecenteroftheworld,andcalledtheirstatethe"MiddleKingdom"(中國(guó)),thusgivingChinaitscountryname.Chinaistheappellationofourcountrygivenbyforeigners.TheporcelainchinaisthetransliterationoftheplacenameChangnan(昌南),whichwastheoldnameforJingdezhen〔景德鎮(zhèn)〕.TheporcelainmadeinChangnanwassmoothandbright,andearnedanothernameofartificialjade.ItbecamefamousbothhomeandabroadandwasexportedtoEuropeinlargequantities.InEurope,peopleregardedChangnanporcelainassomethingpreciousanddelicateandwouldtakeprideinpossessingone.Astimepassed,peopleinEuropeforgotthemeaningofChangnanandswitchedtheoriginalmeaningofporcelainoftheword“china〞totheplaceofitsorigin.Chapter2ChinesePhilosophyandReligionPart1ChineseThoughtsandPhilosophyWordsandExpressions:Confucianism儒家Taoism道家TheAnalects?論語(yǔ)?benevolence仁慈，善行ritual禮制，儀式，慣例filialpiety孝，孝心TheDevelopmentofAncientChinesePhilosophyThephilosophyinPre-Qintimes(先秦子學(xué))TheorthodoxphilosophyduringtheHanDynasty(兩漢經(jīng)學(xué))MetaphysicsduringtheWeiandJindynasties(魏晉玄學(xué))ThebuddhistphilosophyduringtheSuiandTangdynasties(隋唐佛學(xué))Neo-confucianisminSongandMingdynasties(宋明理學(xué))ApplicationphilosophyintheMingandQingdynasties(明清實(shí)學(xué))ThephilosophyinPre-Qintimes(先秦子學(xué))ThephilosophyinPre-Qintimeswasmarkedbytheemergenceofvariousancientphilosophicalviews.ThemostinfluentialschoolswereConfucianism(儒家),Taoism(道家),Mohism(墨家)andLegalism(法家)1.ConfucianismConfucianismisaschoolofthoughtrepresentedbyConfuciusandMencius.ConfucianismhasinfluencedtheChineseforthousandsofyearsandisdeeplyrootedinChineseculture.Itisanintegrationofintellectual,political,andreligioustraditionwiththefocusontheindividualmoralityandethicsindailylifeandtheproperexerciseofpoliticalpower.WhoisConfucius?Familyname:Kong;Givenname:Qiu;courtesyname:ZhongniHeisagreatthinker,aneducator,astatesman,aphilosopher,thefounderoftheConfucianschoolandConfucianism.ThelandmarkofConfucianismistheAnalects,whichwaswrittenbyhisdisciplesafterhisdeath.ThecoreofConfucius’sphilosophyaretheconceptsofRen(benevolence)Ren(仁):Confuciusdefinesitas“Airen〞(愛(ài)人〕，thatis,toloveothers.TheChinesecharacter“仁〞〔benevolence)consistsof“aperson〔人〕〞ontheleftand“two(二)〞ontherightindicatingtherelationshipbetweenpeople.Li(ritual)Li〔ritual-禮〕referstotherulesofhumanconductandmoralnormssuchaspoliteness,courtesy,propriety,properetiquetteandgoodmannersrangingfromspeechandbehaviortotheperformanceofritualswhichareusuallycodifiedandtreatedasanall-embracingsystemofsocialnorms.Xiao(filialpiety)Xiao(孝〕referstothefilialpiety,whichwasregardedasoneofthegreatestofvirtuesinChinesetradition,denotingtherespectandobediencethatthechildrenshouldshowtotheirparents.Zhong(loyalty)Zhong(loyalty-忠〕isagreatvirtue,whichemphasizestheobligationsanddutiestothesuperior,tofriends,family,andspouse.2.TaoismFoundedbyLaoZiandZhuangZi,theschooladvocatesthedoctrinethattheDaoisthecourse,theprinciple,thesubstance,andthestandardofallthings,towhichallofthemmustconform.BasedontheworkofDaoDeJing,Taoismpromotesthebeliefthatapersonshouldliveasimplelife,nottostriveforwealth,fameorpower,whichwillonlygiveoneworriesandtrouble.Theschoolfavoursthepoliticalprincipleof“achievinggoodgovernmentthroughnon-action〞(無(wú)為而治)3.MohismBaseontheteachingofMozi,theschoolcherishesuniversallovewhichstatesthatifallthepeopleintheworldlovedoneanother,therewillbenohatred,calamities,andhostilities.Inpoliticsandethics,Mohismproposeshonoringvirtuouspeople,opposingfatalism(宿命論)andaggressivewars,andupholdingthriftiness(節(jié)儉).4.LegalismLegalism,begunbyHanfeizi,espouses(主張)layingdownlawstounifythethoughtofpeople,promotingagriculturetoachieveaffluence(富裕),waging(進(jìn)行)warstogainstrengthandpower,andestablishingasystemofbureaucracy(官僚制度).TheorthodoxphilosophyduringtheHanDynasty(兩漢經(jīng)學(xué))IntheHanDynasty,EmperorWudiinstitutedthecampaignof“banningallschoolsofthoughtexceptConfucianism(罷黜百家，獨(dú)尊儒術(shù))〞.HechoseofficialsfromthosewhoweresteepedinConfucianismonly.Consequently,ConfucianismbecameanorthodoxschoolthatservedastheideologicalfoundationofthefeudalrulethroughoutthedynastiesinChina.TraditionalChineseethicsTraditionalChineseethicsincludesbothgoodandbadelements.SomereflectthehighstandardofmoralpursuitoftheChinesepeople,whileothersseemlessrelevantinmodernsociety.Forexample,thethreeobediencesandfourvirtues(三從四德)andthethreebasicrulesandfiveconstantvirtues(三綱五常)havelongbeenabandonedbytheChinesepeople.Thetraditionalidealofawomanisthatsheisadependantbeingwhosebehaviorisgovernedby“threeobediences〞(tofatherbeforemarriage,tohusbandaftermarriage,andtosonafterbecomingawidow:未嫁從父,既嫁從夫,夫死從子)andfour“virtues〞(morality,properspeech,modestmanner,anddiligence:品德、言語(yǔ)、儀態(tài)、女工).Thesewerethesocialnormsprescribedbyfeudalmorality.Thethreebasicrules:akingshouldruleoverhissubjects;afather,hisson;ahusband,hiswife(君為臣綱、父為子綱、夫?yàn)槠蘧V).Thefiveconstantvirtues:benevolence,righteousness,propriety,wisdom,andfidelity(仁、義、禮、智、信).Part2ReligionsandBeliefsWordsandExpressions:Heavenworship祭天Ancestorworship祭祖Confucianism儒教TheConfucianTemple孔廟Taoism道教TheFiveElements五行Buddhism佛教Buddha佛像，佛祖，佛陀nirvana涅槃HeavenworshipTheheavenworshipwasthebureaucratic(官僚的)beliefsystemadoptedbymostdynastiesofChinauntiltheoverthrow(推翻)oftheQingDynasty.Heavenwasbelievedtomanifestitselfthroughthepowersoftheweatherandnaturaldisasters.Heavenwasseenasajudgeofhumans.TheemperorsareSonsofHeaven(天子),andtheirpowerareauthorizedbyheaven.Suchbeliefsactuallyconsolidated(穩(wěn)固)theauthorityoftheEmperor.AncestorworshipChineseworshipofancestorsdatesbacktotheprehistory.Chineseculture,Confucianism,andChineseBuddhismallvaluefilialpietyasatopvirtue,andtheactisacontinueddisplayofpietyandrespecttowardsdepartedancestors.Confucianism儒教Confucianismisnotarealreligion,itisjustanethical(倫理道德的)andphilosophicalsystem,whichdevelopedfrom

Confucius’thoughtsandlaterwastreatedasakindofbelieftoeducatecommonpeople(教化群眾).TheTaoistReligionAGeneralIntroductionofTaoismTaoismistheindigenous(土生土長(zhǎng)的)religioninChina.TheTaoistreligionevolvedoutofwitchcraft(巫術(shù)),necromancy〔方術(shù))andself-cultivationtechniques.Itshighestbeliefiscalled“Dao〞,itsbibleiscalled“DaoDeJing〞.IthadgreatimpactonthethinkingoftheChinesepeople,aswellasonthepolitical,economicandculturallifeofthecountry.BeliefsYin-yangTheoryYin-yangareopposing,Yin-yangaremutuallyrooted,Yin-yangmutuallytransform,Yin-yangmutuallywaxandwaneTheFiveElements/Wuxing“五行〞Therelationshipbetweenthefiveelements:TheGeneratingCycleWoodfeedsFire;FirecreatesEarth;EarthbearsMetal;MetalcarriesWater;WaternourishesWood.TheOvercomingCycleWoodpartsEarth;EarthabsorbsWater;WaterquenchesFire;FiremeltsMetal;MetalchopsWood.BuddhismBuddhismisthemostimportantreligioninChina.ItisgenerallybelievedthatitwasspreadtoChinain67ADduringtheHanDynasty(206BC-220)fromHotan〔和田〕inXinjiangtoCentralChina.DuringitsdevelopmentinChina,ithasaprofound〔深遠(yuǎn)的〕influenceontraditionalChinesecultureandthoughts,andhasbecomeoneofthemostimportantreligionsinChinaatthattime.ItsDeityisSakyamuni(釋迦牟尼);Itsdoctrineisbasedontransmigration(輪回).Whatisthefundamentalcauseofallsuffering?Desire!WhatdidtheBuddhateach?ThedoctrineofFourNobleTruths(四諦)lifeissuffering,thecauseofsufferingisdesire,theansweristoquench(抑制)desire,thewaytothisendistofollowtheEight-FoldPath(八正道).WhatdoBuddhistsbelieve?Nirvanaisapeaceful,detachedstateofmind.AchievingNirvanameansescapefromthecycleofrebirth.BuddhisminChinahasdevelopedintothreesections,namelytheHan,TibetanandSouthernBuddhism.Chapter3ChineseCharacters,CalligraphyandPaintingWordsandExpressions:ChineseCharacters漢字calligraphy書(shū)法calligrapher書(shū)法家Oraclebonescript甲骨文TheregularScript楷書(shū)FourTreasuresoftheStudy文房四寶brush毛筆inkstick墨inkstone硯臺(tái)TheoriginoftheChinesecharacters1.Keeprecordsbytyingknots(結(jié)繩說(shuō)〕2.TheEightDiagrams(八卦說(shuō))3.CangJiecreatedthecharacters(倉(cāng)頡造字說(shuō))TheevolutionofChinesecharactersfont(漢字的字體演變)OraclebonescriptItreferstoincised(雕刻的)ancientChinesecharactersfoundonoraclebones,whichareanimalbonesorturtleshellsusedindivination(預(yù)言)inancientChina.Bronzewarescript金文Itreferstocharactersfoundengravedonbronzevessels,utensils,weaponsetc.TheSealCharacters(篆書(shū))Softlinesofstrokesanduprightrectangularshapekeepthesealformcharactersmoreclosetopictography(象形文字).Eachofthecharactershasabalancedandsymmetrical(對(duì)稱(chēng)的)pattern.TheOfficialScript(隸書(shū))ItwastheturningpointintheevolutionofChinesescriptsandisthefoundationofthelaterscriptforms.Itturnedtheremainingcurvedandroundstrokesofthesealformintolinear(直線(xiàn)的)andflatsquare(扁方形)shapes.TheregularScript(楷書(shū))Itisstilltoday’sstandardwriting.Itissquareinform,andnon-cursiveinstrokes.TherunningScript(行書(shū))Therunningformissomewherebetweentheregularandthecursiveformsallowingsimplerandfasterwriting.TheCursive/GrassCharacter(草書(shū))Thisstyleofcalligraphyissmoothandlivelywithstrokesflowingandcharacterslinkingtogether.Thecharactersareoftenjoined,withthelaststrokeofonemergingintotheinitialstrokeofthenext.Itisexecutedfreelyandrapidlysothatpartsofthecharactersappearexaggerated(夸張的).CalligraphyPlayingmusicalinstruments,playingchess,calligraphyandpaintingwereconsideredasthefouressentialskillsforalearnedscholar.TheChinesesaying“Thehandwritingrevealstheperson〞(字如其人),isdirectlyrelatedtocalligraphy.FourTreasuresoftheStudy文房四寶brush毛筆inkstick墨paper紙inkstone硯FamousChineseCalligraphersinHistoryWangXizhi—thesageofChinesecalligraphyZhangXu(張旭〕——the“sageofthecursivehand〞〞草圣〞YanZhenqing——thefourgreatestmastersofRegularscript.LiuGongquan——amasterofRegularScriptandRunning-cursive(行草)PaintingPaintingChineseTraditionalPaintingreferstoink-washpainting(水墨畫(huà)).TraditionalChinesepaintingsarenot“purely〞paintings.Theycombinefineart,poetry,calligraphy,andsealengravingtoachieveanartisticunison(一致).Humanfigures,landscapes,flowers,birds,andpavilionsarethemostimportantthemesoftraditionalChinesepainting.TheclassificationofChinesepaintingAccordingtosubjectmatterFigurepaintingLandscapepaintingBird-and-flowerpaintingAccordingtothetechniqueThexieyischoolThegongbischoolChapter4LiteratureWordsandExpressionsCelestialPoet(詩(shī)仙)SaintPoet(詩(shī)圣)RomanceoftheThreeKingdoms?三國(guó)演義?WaterMargin?水滸傳?JourneytotheWest?西游記?DreamoftheRedMansions?紅樓夢(mèng)?TheTangPoemTheTangDynastysawthecontinueddevelopmentofChinesepoetry.TheCompleteAnthologyofTangPoems(?全唐詩(shī)?),editedintheearlyQingDynasty,isthebiggest-evercollectionofChinesepoetry.Itcontains48,977poemsby2,208poetswhowroteindifferentstyles.ThedevelopmentofpoetryintheTangDynastycanbeclassifiedintofourstages,namelyEarlyTang,HighTang,MidTang,andLateTang(初唐，盛唐，中唐，晚唐〕EarlyTangTheFourLiteraryEminences(初唐四杰)WangBo,YangJiong,LuoBinwang,andLuZhaolinHighTangAwholegenerationofliterarygiantsappearedduringtheHighTangperiodwhensocietyenjoyedprosperityandstability.LiBaiandDuFuareregardedasthetwinmasterpoetsoftheTangDynasty.LiBai,the“CelestialPoet(詩(shī)仙)〞,haslongbeenregardedthegreatestromanticpoetinChineseliterature.Inhispoems,imagination,exaggeration,dictionandsonorousrhythmsareblendedeffortlessly.DuFu,the“SaintPoet(詩(shī)圣)〞,hasbeenconsideredasthegreatestrealisticpoetinChineseliterature.Amirrorofthetimes,hispoemsfaithfullyandprofoundlyreflectthesocialrealitiesofTangDynastyindecline,likeapoetichistoricalaccount.Becausehereachedperfectionindevelopingadepressingliterarystyle,hisworkshavebeenconsideredastheclassicsofrealism.Theotherpoetsinthisperiodcanbegroupedintotwocategories:frontierpoets(邊塞詩(shī)人〕representedbyGaoShiandCenShen,andpastoralpoets(田園詩(shī)人〕representedbyMengHaoranandWangWei.Mid-TangTheoutstandingpoetBaiJuyisucceededDuFuwithpoemsreflectingtherealityofsociety.LateTangWiththedeteriorationofthegovernmentinthelateTangDynasty,thepoemsreflected,moreandmore,thehopelessandhelplessfeelingsofthepeople.Poetsturnedtothethemeofnostalgia(懷舊)fortheformersplendor(輝煌)ofoldtimes.ThemosttalentedofthesewereLiShangyinandDuMu,whowereoftencalled“YoungLiBaiandDuFu〞.FictionintheMingandQingDynastyIntheSongDynasty,huaben(話(huà)本),theearliestnovelswrittenincolloquiallanguagestartedtoappear.BytheMingandQingdynasties,novelsgrewrapidlyasalivelyandfreeliteraryform.Thelanguageofthenovelswassimple,easytounderstand,andwelcomedbythepublic.FourfamousChineseclassicalnovelsRomanceoftheThreeKingdoms?三國(guó)演義?WaterMargin?水滸傳?JourneytotheWest?西游記?DreamoftheRedMansions?紅樓夢(mèng)?WinneroftheNoblePrizeinLiterature,MoYanOn11October2023,the\o"SwedishAcademy"SwedishAcademyannouncedthatMoYanhadreceivedtheNobelPrizeinLiteratureforhiswork.Aged57atthetimeoftheannouncement,hewasthe109threcipientoftheawardandthefirsteverresidentofmainlandChinatoreceiveit.MoYanhaswritten11novels,andseveralnovellasandshortstorycollections.?紅高粱家族?\o"RedSorghum"RedSorghum,?天堂蒜薹之歌?TheGarlicBallads,?十三步?ThirteenStep,?食草家族?TheHerbivorousFamily,?豐乳肥臀?BigBreastsandWideHips,?酒國(guó)?TheRepublicofWine:ANovel,?紅樹(shù)林?RedForest,?檀香刑?SandalwoodDeath,?生死疲勞?LifeandDeathAreWearingMeOut,?四十一炮?Pow!,?蛙?FrogChapter5EducationWordsandExpressionsPrivateSchools私塾OfficialSchools官學(xué)theFourBooksandtheFiveClassics四書(shū)五經(jīng)ImperialExamination科舉Nine-yearCompulsoryEducation九年制義務(wù)教育VocationalEducation職業(yè)教育CollegeEntranceExamination高考Bachelor’sdegree學(xué)士學(xué)位Master’sdegree碩士學(xué)位Doctor’sdegree博士學(xué)位ConfuciusInstitute孔子學(xué)院PrivateSchoolsAprivateschoolreferstoaschoolsetupbyafamily,clan,orteacherthatgenerallyhadjustoneteacherwhogaveindividualtuition,andthathadnosettextbooksandnospecifiedtimespanofstudy.IntheSpringandAutumnPeriod,privateschoolsprevailedandmanyscholarsofdifferentschoolsofthoughtspreadtheirteachinginthisway.Amongthem,theprivateschoolrunbyConfuciuswasthelargestandmostinfluential.Confucius’privateschool:ciples(弟子);72virtuousandtalentedstudentsConfucius’educationalideas:“Educationshouldbeforall,irrespectiveoftheirsocialstatus.〞〔有教無(wú)類(lèi)〕“Sixarts〞:ritual,music,archery,chariot-riding,writing,andarithmetic.〔六藝：禮、樂(lè)、射、御、書(shū)、數(shù)〕OfficialSchoolsOfficialschoolsbeganduringtheWesternZhouDynasty,andweresponsoredbytheofficialconstitutioncalledXiangxue.Onlychildrenofnobleswereadmitted.TheteachingmaterialswerecenteredontheFourBooksandtheFiveClassics(四書(shū)五經(jīng)).ImperialExaminationSystem(科舉)ImperialExaminationSysteminChinabeganintheSuiDynastyandlastedmorethan1,300yearsuntilthelastexaminationwasheldduringtheQingDynasty.Itwasconductedattwolevels:xiangshi(鄉(xiāng)試)andhuishi(會(huì)試)DuringtheMingandQingDynasty,theexaminationwasdesignedtoselectjinshi(進(jìn)士).Itfeaturedwriting,whichinvolvedthewritingofanEight-partEssay(八股文).AftertheOpiumWarin1840withthespreadoftheWesternideologyandtechnologyinChina,itwasunderattackbypeople.Itwasabolishedin1905.Nine-yearCompulsoryEducationThelawofcompulsoryeducationcameintoeffectonJuly1,1986,requiringeachchildtohavenineyearsofformaleducation.China’sNine-yearCompulsoryEducationiscomposedoftwoparts:six-yearsinprimaryschoolandthree-yearsinjuniorhighschool.In1989,Chinalaunchedtwoambitiousprojects:ProjectHope(希望工程)andtheSpringBudProject(春蕾方案)Thesetwoprojectshavehelpedchildren,especiallygirls,inpoorareastoattendschools.TheNationalCollegeEntranceExaminationisanacademicexaminationheldannuallyinChinaaimedtoselecthigh-schoolgraduatesforcollegeadmissions.HigherEducationMorethantwothousanduniversities,colleges,andinstitutesinChinaofferfourorfive-yearprograms.StudentswhohaveearnedBachelorofArtsorSciencedegreesmayapplyforMasterofArtsorScienceprogramsandthenthree-yearDoctorofPhilosophy(Ph.D.)programs.ConfuciusInstituteConfuciusInstituteisnotageneralsenseoftheuniversity,butthepromotionanddissemination〔傳播〕ofChinesecultureandChineselanguageeducation.Chapter6DressandAdornmentCultureWordsandExpressionsattire/costume/trappings服裝、服飾TheSilkRoad絲綢之路TheMaritimeSilkRoad海上絲綢之路embroidery/im‘br?id?ri/刺繡;刺繡品LiBrocade黎錦TheIntangibleCulturalHeritage非物質(zhì)文化遺產(chǎn)Chinahasmanyethnicgroupswithalonghistory.Forthousandsofyears,generationsofclothingdesignershavedevotedthemselvestobuildingtheKingdomofClothes,makingthegarmentsthatcoverthehumanbodyintoanimportantcomponentofChineseculture.Cheong-sam(QiPao)Cheong-samcamefromQizhuangofmanchuwomen’scostume.Thecheongsamiseasyandcomfortabletowear,snuglyfittingthefemaleChinesefigure.Itsnecklineishigh,collarclosed,anditssleevesmaybeshort,mediumorfulllength,dependingontheseasonorthewearer’staste.Thedressisbuttonedontherightside,withaloosebodice,afittedwaist,andside-slitstothehem,allofwhichcombinetosetoffthebeautyofthefemale’sfigure.Chinesetunicsuit(Zhongshansuit/Maosuit)ThemodernChinesetunicsuitisastyleofmaleattireknowninChinaastheZhongshansuit,andknownintheWestastheMaosuit(afterMaoZedong).SunZhongshanintroducedthestyleshortlyafterthefoundingoftheRepublicofChinaasaformofnationaldressalthoughwithadistinctlypoliticalandlatergovernmentalimplication.TangCostumesAtangcostumes(literally:"Chinesesuit")isaChinesejacketthatoriginatedattheendoftheQingDynasty.Thetangzhuangevolvedfromthemagua(Chinese:馬褂),whichtheHanChinesewereforcedtowearitduringtheQingDynasty.Inmoderntimesithasbeenadoptedbycommonpeople.Theyareoftenwornbymen,althoughwomenwearthemaswell.InChinesecommunities,theZhongshansuit,thewesternsuit,andtheTangsuitarethemainformsofformaldressformenonmanyoccasions.TheSilkRoadTheSilkRoadreferstotheancienttraderouteconnectingAsiaContinentandEuropeanContinent,usuallyitcanbeclassifiedintoNorthernSilkRoadontheland,andtheMaritimeSilkRoad.Embroidery(刺繡)EmbroideryisatraditionalChinesehandicraftfeaturingflowers,birdsandsceneryonsilkorotherclothincoloredsilkthreads.Chineseembroiderydatesbackover3,000years.Ithasdistinctregionalandethniccharacteristics.EmbroideryinChinaincludes:ShuEmbroidery(蜀繡)fromSichuan,SuEmbroidery(蘇繡)fromSuzhouSuembroideryenjoysagoodreputationofthefirstoftheTop-fourembroideryinChina.XiangEmbroidery(湘繡)fromHunanYueEmbroidery(粵繡)fromGuangdong.LiBrocadeAcclaimedasa"livingfossil"ofChinesetextiles,theLi-stylebrocadewaschoseninthefirstbatchofitemsfortheIntangibleCulturalHeritagelistreleasedbyUNESCOin2023.TheLibrocadehasbeenpartofChina'snationalculturalheritage,butasfewpeoplenowadayshavetheskillsnecessarytoweavethespecialbrocades,thepracticeisindangerofbecomingextinct.Chapter7Part1FoodCultureWordsandExpressionsfoodie吃貨culinary廚房的，烹飪的;烹調(diào)用的cuisine烹飪，烹調(diào)法;菜肴mainfood主食,主糧〔staplefood〕aroma芳香，香味seasonings調(diào)味品、調(diào)料AgeneralintroductionofChinesefoodChinesecuisine(菜肴)iswidelyseenasrepresentingoneoftherichestandmostdiverseculinary(烹飪的)cuisinesandheritagesintheworld.AmealinChinesecultureistypicallyseenasconsistingoftwoormoregeneralcomponents:Zhushi(mainfood)---typicallyrice,noodles,ormantou(steamedbun),andaccompanyingdishesofvegetables,meat,fish,orotheritems,knownascai(dish)intheChineselanguage.ThisculturalconceptualizationisinsomewaysincontrasttocuisinesofNorthernEuropeandtheUSA,wheremeatoranimalprotein(蛋白質(zhì))isoftenconsideredthemainfood(主食).Chinesecuisineisacompletepresenceofcolor,aroma(芳香，香味)andtaste.(色香味俱全)InChina,wehaveeightbranchesofcuisine.ShandongCuisine山東菜系(魯菜)GuangdongCuisine廣東菜系(粵菜)SichuanCuisine四川菜系(川菜)HunanCuisine湖南菜系(湘菜)JiangsuCuisine淮揚(yáng)菜系(蘇菜)ZhejiangCuisine浙江菜系(浙菜)FujianCuisine福建菜系(閩菜)AnhuiCuisine安徽菜系(徽菜)HainanCuisineHainanisnotedforits"FourBestKnownDishes"--WenchangChicken,JiajiDuck,DongshanMutton東山羊andHeleCrab和樂(lè)蟹.Chapter7Part2TeaandWineCultureABriefIntroductiontoTeaCultureTea(茶)commonlydenotesthedrinkmadefromsteeping(浸泡〕theprocessedleaves,buds〔芽〕,ortwigsoftheteabush(茶樹(shù))inwater.OnbothcasualandformalChineseoccasions,teaisconsumedregularly.Inadditiontobeingadrink,ChineseteaisusedinTraditionalChinesemedicineandinChinesecuisine.ItisuniversallyacknowledgedthatChinaistheoriginaltea-growingarea,aswellasthefirstcountrytogrow,produceanddrinktea.Attheendofthesixteenthcentury,theDutch(荷蘭人)broughtwordtoEuropethattherewasakindofmagicleafintheeast,fromwhichtastydrinkscouldbemade,andthiswasthefirsttimethatEuropeansheardoftea.In1610,theEastIndiaCompany(東印度公司)wasthefirsttosellteatoEurope,afterwhichthehabitofdrinkingteatookrootthere.Britainisfamousforitsteadrinking.TheClassificationsofChineseTeaGreentea綠茶Blacktea紅茶Oolongtea烏龍茶Yellowtea黃茶Whitetea白茶Scentedtea花茶Compressedtea磚茶Uniquecustomsoftakingteaindifferentregions:GuangdongMorningteaFujianKongfuteaSichuan“Covered-bowltea〞TibetanButteredtea(酥油茶)InnerMongoliaMilkteaHainanLaobaTeaHainanLaobaTea“Laobatea〞(Laobameansfather)isaspecialsceneinHaikou,apotofteawithsomesnacks,peoplesitaroundanoldtable,forkillingtimeandstrengtheningtherelationshipwiththeirsfriends,ithasn’tthelimitationoftimeorplace.MostofplacesoftraditionalLaobateaarebarelyfurnished,thepricesoffoodandteatherearecheap.TheteahouseofLaobateaisalittleworldofsociety,amirrorofthetraditionallifeinHainan.TheFunctionsofOfferingTeaToshowrespectToapologizeToexpressthankstotheeldersonone’sweddingdayTeaEtiquetteServingacupofteaismorethanmerepoliteness.Whenofferedtea,itisconsideredpolitetoatleasttakeasip.Whenyoupourtea,theruleof“fullcupforwineandhalfcupfortea〞shouldbeobserved.ChineseWineCultureTheOriginofChineseWineChinesewine,asaspecialformofculture,hasahistoryofmorethanfivethousandyears.Chinesewinemakingcanbetracedbackasfaras4000BC,totheearlyperiodoftheNeolithicYangshaoCulture(新石器時(shí)代的仰韶文化).Duringitslongdevelopment,Chinesewinehasdevelopeddistinctivecharacteristics.TypesofChineseWineHuangjiu(yellowricewine)Huangjiuisoneofthreedominatedbrewedwines(beerandgrapewine)intheworld.HuangJiupredatesalltheotherliquors,withahistoryofseveralthousandyears.AmongtheseliquorstheShaoxingRiceWineisthemostfamous.Baijiu(whitewine)Beingmadefromsorghum,corn,barleyorwheatFruitWineFermentedalcoholicbeveragesmadefromavarietyofbaseingredients(otherthangrapes);Mayalsohaveadditionalflavorstakenfromfruits,flowers,andherbs.RedWineAtypeofwinemadefromdark-coloured(black)grapevarieties.Theactualcolourofthewinecanrangefromintenseviolet,typicalofyoungwines,throughtobrickredformaturewinesandbrownforolderredwines.BeerToastetiquetteChineseDrinkingEtiquette(禮儀)TheChinesepeoplecaremoreaboutthepeoplewedrinkwith.ThatisChinesedrinkingetiquettereflectstherespectofthedrinkersThehostandguestshavetheirownseatandorderoftoast(敬酒順序)Whentoast,thehostcomefirst,andfirstly,theyshouldtoastthemosthonoredguest.Thewinevesselmustbefull.Theyoungershouldtoasttheelderanddrinkallofthewine.(先干為敬)WesternDrinkingEtiquetteThedrinkingetiquetteofwestshowtherespectofwine.Todistinguishwineweneedtowatchitscolor,smellitsfragrance,tasteitstaste(觀(guān)其色、聞其香、品其味).Theydrinkforenjoying,sosometimestheydrinkthemselves.Theydonotencourageotherstodrink,neitherdotheyconsiderlettingotherdrunkisawaytoshowtheiretiquette.Chapter4TraditionalFestivalsandCustomsWordsandExpressionsLegalholiday/officialholiday法定節(jié)假日Solarcalendar陽(yáng)歷Lunarcalendar陰歷/Agriculturalcalendar農(nóng)歷SpringFestival〔春節(jié)〕LanternFestival(元宵節(jié)〕Tomb-sweepingFestival/QingMingFestival(清明節(jié)〕DragonBoatFestival〔端午節(jié)〕Mid-autumnFestival〔中秋節(jié)〕DoubleNinthFestival〔重陽(yáng)節(jié)〕IntangibleCulturalHeritage非物質(zhì)文化遺產(chǎn)SpringFestival〔春節(jié)〕China’smostimportantfestivalfallsonthe1stdayofthe1stlunarmontheachyear.FamilymembersgatherjustastheydoforChristmasintheWest.CustomsSpringCleaningWriteandpastecouplets(對(duì)聯(lián))ondoorsSetofffir