新編簡明英語語言學(xué)教程(重點(diǎn)筆記趕考秘籍)

1、1.1 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It is a scientific study because it (a) is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data. It (b) discovers the nature and rules of the underlying language system. It (c) collects language facts that display some sim

2、ilarities, and generalizations are made about them. The study of language as a whole if often called general linguistics. phonetics(語音學(xué)): the study of sounds phonology(音位學(xué)): how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning morphology(形態(tài)學(xué)): how morphemes(詞素) are arranged and combined to form wo

3、rds syntax(句法學(xué)): the study of rules that govern the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences semantics(語義學(xué)): the study of meaning pragmatics(語用學(xué)): the study of meaning in the context of language use interdisciplinary branches: sociolinguistics(社會語言學(xué)), psycholinguistics(心理語言學(xué))

4、, applied linguistics(應(yīng)用語言學(xué)) Important distinctions in linguistics prescriptive(規(guī)定性 old linguistics) vs. descriptive(描述性 modern linguistics) synchronic(共時(shí)性) vs. diachronic(歷時(shí)性): most linguistic studies are of synchronic descriptions, which is prior in modern linguistics speech and writing: speech is

5、 prior to writing in modern linguistics langue(語言系統(tǒng)abstract linguistic system) and parole(話語/言語realization of langue in actual use): Swiss linguist F. de Saussure-forefather of modern linguistics competence(語言能力ideal users knowledge of rules of his language) and performance(語言運(yùn)用actual realization of

6、 this knowledge): American linguist N. Chomsky traditional grammar and modern linguistics: Saussures book “Course in General Linguistics” marked the beginning of modern linguistics1.2 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. LAD: Language Acquisition Device -Chom

7、sky Arbitrariness (任意性): Different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages. Productivity/creativity (能產(chǎn)性): Construction and interpretation of new signals are possible, so that large number of sentences can be produced. Duality (雙層性): Two levels enable people to talk about

8、anything within their knowledge. lower level(sounds)-higher level(words) Displacement(移位性): enable people to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place. Cultural transmission(文化傳承): We are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of lang

9、uage system have to be taught and learned.2.1 Speech and writing are the two media for communication, of which speech is more basic/primary. The sounds which are produced by humans through their speech organs and meaningful in communication constitute the phonic medium of language. The individual so

10、unds within this range are the speech sounds.2.2 Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language, which concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages. articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, acoustic phonetics Speech organs: pharyngeal; cavity-throat; oral cavity-mouth

11、; nasal cavity-nose IPA: 國際音標(biāo) diacritics: 變音符 broad transcription: 寬式標(biāo)音(used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks)narrow transcription: 嚴(yán)式標(biāo)音(used by phoneticians in their study) vowels(the air stream meets with no obstruction) and consonants(obstructed) stops(塞音), fricatives(擦音), affricates(塞擦音),

12、liquids(流音), nasals, glides, bilabial(雙唇音), laviodental(唇齒音), dental(齒音), alveolar(齒齦音), palatal(腭音), velar(軟腭音), glottal(喉音) close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, open vowels(openness) unrounded vowels, rounded vowels(shape of the lips) long/tense vowels-short/lax vowels monophthongs(單

13、元音), diphthongs(雙元音) (single or combined)2.3 Phonology and phonetics differ in their approach and focus. phonology: how speech sounds form patterns and are used to convey meaning concerned with sound system of a particular language phonetics: of a general nature, interested in all the speech sounds

14、A phone(音素) is a phonetic unit or segment.(speech sounds are all phones) a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning A phoneme(音位) is a phonological unit.(an abstract unit of distinctive value) not particular sound, but is realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context The different

15、phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones(音位變體) of that phoneme. Rules in phonology: Sequential rules(序列規(guī)則)-rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. Assimilation rule(同化規(guī)則)-assimilates one sound to another by “copyi

16、ng” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. for ease of articulation(清晰發(fā)音) e.g. green, scream Deletion rule(省略規(guī)則)-e.g. designation Suprasegmental features(超切分特征): the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. stress(重音)-word stress and sentence stre

17、ss The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. E.g. import (n.) import (v.) / blackbird vs. black bird tone(語調(diào))-pitch variation(音高變體) distinguish meaning E.g. 漢語四聲 Intonation(音調(diào))-English tones: falling tone, rising tone, fall-rise tone, rise-fall tone E.g. Thats not the book he wants.3.

18、1 Morphology: study of the internal structure of words, and rules by which words are formed3.2 open class words(開放類): new words can be addednouns, verbs, adjective and adverbs closed class words(封閉類): “grammatical” or “functional” words3.3 Word is the smallest free form found in language. Morphemes

19、are the minimal units of meaning.Free and bound morphemes(自由詞素can be a word by itself粘著詞素must be attached to another one-affix)3.4 V-teach N Af-er3.5 Derivational and inflectional morphemes(派生詞素和屈折詞素) Free morphemes Bound morphemes Root Root Affix dog, cat -ceive Prefix Suffix grammar -vert Derivati

20、onal Derivational Inflectional -mit un-, dis- -ment -s, -ing, -s, -er3.6 Morphological rules determine how morphemes combine to form words. E.g. un-accept-able3.8 Another way to form words is compounding. E.g. bittersweet Word Formations: compounding, blending, backformation, shortening4.1 Syntax st

21、udies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.4.2 Category is a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. Syntactic categoriesword-level categories: major lexical categories (often assumed as t

22、he heads around which phrases are built)-Noun (N) Verb (V) Adjective (A) Preposition (P) minor lexical categories-Determiner (Det) Degree words (Deg) Qualifier (Qual) Auxiliary (Aux) Conjunction (Con) Three criteria(條件) determining a words category: meaning, inflection (變形) and distribution (分布) A w

23、ords category can be determined only by all three criteria. Phrase category is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built. noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP), prepositional phrase (PP) phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain : h

24、ead, specifier, complement4.3 Phrase structure rule-special type of grammatical mechanism regulating the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase NP(Det) N (PP) an NP consists of a determiner, an N head, and a PP complement VP(Qual) V (NP) a VP consists of a qualifier, a V head, and an NP compl

25、ement AP(Deg) A (PP) PP(Deg) P (NP) XP rule: XP(specifier) X (complement) Coordination rule: coordinate structures (consist a conjunction “and”/”or”) XX *Con X Either an X or an XP can be coordinated; one or more categories can occur to the left of the Con.4.4 Phrase elements: specifiers, complement

26、s, modifiersspecifiers determiner qualifier degree word heads N V A / P complementizers (Cs)words introducing the sentence complement complement clausesentence introduced by the complementizer complement phrase(CP) matrix clauseconstruction in which the CP embeded嵌入 As, Ns, Ps can all take CP. Adjec

27、tives: (heads) afraid, certain, aware Nouns: (heads) fact, claim, belief Prepositions: (heads)over, about modifiers: all lexical categories can have modifiers. AP(+Ns): precedes the head e.g. a very careful girl PP(+Vs): follows the head e.g. open with care AdvP(+Vs): precedes or follows the head e.

28、g. read carefully/carefully read The Expanded XP rule: XP(Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)4.5 The S rule: SNP VP - Inflp (=S)NP Infl VP -Infl can be taken by an abstract category encoded in a verb indicating tense or an auxiliary(助動(dòng)詞)4.6 Transformation a special rule that can move an element from o

29、ne position to anotherauxiliary movement(助動(dòng)詞移位) inversion: move Infl to the left of the subject NP. within larger CPs (embedded or not): inversion: move Infl to C. P53 Figure 4-8do insertion(插入): insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position, than move Infl to C.deep and surface structure: e.g

30、. Will the train arrive?Deep: S Surface: Will the train _ arrive? NP VP Det N Infl V the train will arriveThe XP ruleD structuretransformationsS structurewh movement: move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence/the specifier position under CP P57 Figure 4-16 P58 Figure 4-18move and constrain

31、ts on transformations move : general rule for all the movement rules : any element that can be moved limits: inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position no element may be removed from a coordinate structure5.1 Semantics is the study of meaning (from a linguistic point of

32、view.)5.2 The naming theory: The words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. The limitations of this theory are obvious. Theres verbs, adjectives, etc. and also abstract nouns. The conceptualist view: Words and things are related through the mediation of concepts in the

33、 mind. Contextualism: The meaning of a word is its use in the language. Behaviorism: The meaning of a language form is the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.5.3 Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning, whic

34、h are related but different aspects of meaning. Sense: e.g. “dog”-a domesticated mammal. refer to any animal that meets the features described Reference: “dog”-A said to B:” The dogs barking.” refer to a certain dog known to both A&B Major sense relations:synonymy-words that are close in meaning

35、 dialectal syn.(autumn in BE & fall in AE), stylistic syn.(daddy & father), syn. that differ in emotive or evaluative meaning(same meaning, different emotions) collocational syn.(different usage), semantically different syn.(differ slightly in meaning) polysemy(one word may have more than on

36、e meaning) homonymy (homophones- two words same in sound, homographs-same in spelling, complete homonyms-same in both sound and spelling) hyponymy(relation between a general wordsuperordinate, and a specific word-hyponyms) antonymy(words that are opposite in meaning) gradable ant.-e.g. hot vs. cold

37、complementary ant.-e.g. male vs. female relational ant.-e.g. husband vs. wife5.4 Sense relations between sentences: X is synonymous with Y. E.g. He was a bachelor all his life. / He never married. X, TrueY, True; X, False-Y False X is inconsistent with Y. E.g. Johns married. / Johns a bachelor. X, T

38、Y, F; X, FY, T X entails Y. E.g. Hes been to France. / Hes been to Europe. X, TY, T; X, FY, may be T or F X presupposes Y. E.g. Johns bike needs repairing. / John has a bike. X, TY, T; X, FY, T X is a contradiction. E.g. My unmarried sister married a bachelor. X is always false. X is semantically an

39、omalous. (absurd in the sense)5.5 componential analysis-lexical meaning E.g. man-+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE predication(謂項(xiàng)) analysis-sentence meaning E.g. The kids like apples. -KID, APPLE (LIKE) Tom smokes. -TOM (SMOKE) It is hot. - (BE HOT) 6.1 Pragmatics studies how speakers of a language us

40、e sentences to effect successful communication (meaning in a certain context). Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning Utterance is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication or context, it is context-dependent.6.2 Speech act theory: aim to answer “What

41、 do we do when using language?”-John Austin in late 1950s locutionary act(言內(nèi)行為字面意思), illocutionary act(言外行為目的), perlocutionary act(言后行為結(jié)果) John Searle: classification of illocutionary acts-five general types of things we do with language Specific acts that fall into each type share the same illocuti

42、onary point 1. representatives/assertive: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true E.g. The earth is a globe. 2. directives: trying to get the hearer to do something E.g. Close the door. / Will you close the door? 3. commissives: committing the speaker himself to some futur

43、e course of action E.g. I promise to come. / I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail. 4. expressive: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state E.g. Its kind of you to . / Im sorry for the mess Ive made. 5. declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something E.g

44、. I now declare the meeting open. / I appoint you chairman of the committee. Indirect speech act-primary speech act (goal of communication) + secondary speech act (means by which he achieves the goal) -Searle6.3 Conventional implicature(暗示) & nonconventional implicature-Grice Con. imp. E.g. He i

45、s rich but he is not greedy. imp. Rich people are usually greedy. The participants must first of all be willing to cooperate to converse with each other. The general principle is called the Cooperative Principle. (CP) Four maxims(準(zhǔn)則) under CP: The maxim of quantity (informative but no more than requ

46、ired), quality (dont say what you believe to be false or what you lack adequate evidence), relation (be relevant), manner (avoid obscurity or ambiguity & be brief and orderly) These maxims can be violated. (when misleading, lying, etc.)Chap. 7 Language change (diachronic 歷時(shí)的) Historical linguist

47、ics phonological changes: vowels-the most dramatic change morphological and syntactic change: morphological: Addition of affixes (Fusion 融合 word word-base +suffix /prefix +base) Loss of affixes-some are via sound changes syntactic: change of word order Old English: subject-object-verb change in nega

48、tion rule Old English: I love thee not. lexical and semantic change: lexical: Addition of new words-takes place obviously and quickly Coinage (coin for new things and objects), Clipped words (縮略構(gòu)詞), Blending (combine parts of other words, e.g. brunch), Acronyms (首字構(gòu)詞 e.g. WTO), Back-formation (subtr

49、act affixes from old words, e.g. donate-from “donation”) Functional shift /Conversion (shift without adding affixes, e.g. to knee/cool; a reject) Borrowing (borrow from other languages, e.g. bonus from Latin, cycle from Greek) Loss of words-takes place gradually over several generations Some words a

50、re short-lived because of the discontinuation of the object they name. semantic: three processes of semantic change- semantic broadening: e.g. holiday = holy day in the past, but any rest day today semantic narrowing: e.g. girl = young person of either sex in the past semantic shift: e.g. nice = ign

51、orant a thousand years ago recent trends: moving towards greater informality, influence of American English, influence of science and technology (space travel, computer and internet lang. etc.) causes of language change: development of science &tech., social & political changes and needs, th

52、e way children acquire language, grammar simplification, elaboration & complication, etc. No single causeChap. 8 Language and society Sociolinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in

53、 which the users of language live. (社會語言學(xué)) Halliday & Hudson Language is used to communicate meaning, and to establish and maintain social relationships. Social background determines the kind of language one uses, and language reflects ones info. speech community-the social group that is singled out for any special study Various social groups exist within a speech community. A social group may distinguish itself from the rest of the community by the educational background, the occupation, the gender, the age , of the ethnic affiliati