20世紀(jì)文論概述與作品分析

1、PAGE PAGE 64I. Russian FormalismGenerally The Russian Formalists thought of literature as a special use of language, but what merits our attention is that Russian Formalism is by no means monolithic.Origin and historical background. Russian Formalist studies were well established before the 1917 Rev

2、. in the Moscow Linguistic Circle, founded 1915. The initial impetus was provided by the Futurists such as Mayakovsky who emphasized the artists role as (proletarian) producer of crafted objects.Early stage: Shklovsky - “defamiliarization”, “l(fā)aying bare technique” and plot (sjuzet) vs. story (fabula

3、). The Formalists technical focus led them to treat literature as a special use of language which achieves its distinctness by deviating from and distorting practical language. Practical language is used for acts of communication, while literary language has no practical function at all and simply m

4、akes us see differently . Poetry exercises a controlled violence upon practical language, which is thereby deformed in order to compel our attention to its constructed nature. Shklovsky called this defamiliarization (estrangement, making strange). He argued that we can never retain the freshness of

5、our perceptions of objects; the demands of normal existence require that they must become to a great extent automatized. The Formalists were fond of citing two English 18th century writers, Laurence Sterne and Jonathan Swift as exemplars of the art of defamiliarization. In his monograph on Sternes T

6、ristram Shandy, Shklovsky draws attention to the ways in which familiar actions are defamiliarized by being slowed down, drawn out or interrupted. This emphasis on the actual process of presentation is called laying bare ones technique. Many readers find Sternes novel irritating for its continual re

7、ferences to its own novelistic structure, but laying bare its own devices is, in Shklovskys view, the most essentially literary thing a novel can do. Defamiliarization and laying bare are notions which directly influenced Bertol Brechts famous alienation effect.plot (sjuzet) vs. story (fabula). A ca

8、refully ordered Aristotelian plot should give us the essential and familiar truths of human life; it should be plausible and have a certain inevitability. The Russian formalists, on the other hand, often linked theory of plot with the notion of defamiliarization; the plot prevents us from regarding

9、the incidents as typical and familiar. Instead, we are made constantly aware how artifice constructs or forges (makes/counterfeits) the reality presented to us. In its display of poiesis (poet=maker) rather than mimesis (copying =realism), this looks forward, as does Sterne, to postmodernist self-re

10、flexivity. Prague school stage: Roman Jakobson “dominant” and equivalence principle.In the 1920s within the Russian Formalists, there was a shift from Shklovskys notion of the texts as a heap of devices to Tynyanovs of the text as a functioning system. Both Tynyanov and Jakobson reject a mechanical

11、formalism and attempt to reach beyond a narrowly literary perspective by trying to define the relationship between the literary system and other historical systems. The way in which the literary system develops historically cannot be understood without understanding the way in which other systems im

12、pinge on it and partly determine its evolutionary path. On the other hand, they insist, we must attend to the immanent laws of the literary system itself if we are to understand correctly the correlations of the systems.So it gradually became apparent that literary devices were not fixed pieces that

13、 could be moved at will in the literary game. Their value and meaning changed with time and also with context. With this realization, device gave way to function as the leading concept. Literary works are seen as dynamic system in which elements are structured in relations of foreground and backgrou

14、nd. If a particular element is effaced (perhaps archaic diction), other elements will come into play as dominant (perhaps plot or rhythm) in the works system.The notion of dominant is not only true with literary history but also applicable to the definition of literariness, which foregrounds the fun

15、ction of message (among all sis elements in a verbal event), promoting the palpability of signs, deepen (ing) the fundamental dichotomy of signs and objects on the one hand, and on the other hand, the poetic function projects the principle of equivalence from the axis of selection into the axis of c

16、ombination. The Bakhtin School: “heteroglossia”, polyphonic/ dialogic novel, “Carnival”.The Bakhtin School may be considered formalist in its concern for the linguistic structure of literary works, although works authored by Voloshinov, particularly, were deeply influenced by Marxism in the belief t

17、hat language could not be separated from ideology. This intimate connection between language and ideology, discussed in Voloshinovs Marxism and the Philosophy of Language (1973), immediately drew literature into the social and economic sphere, the homeland of ideology. This approach departs from cla

18、ssical Marxist assumptions about ideology by refusing to treat it as a purely mental phenomenon which arises as a reflex of a material (real) socio-economic substructure. Ideology is not separable from its medium language. The Bakhtin School was not interested in abstract linguistics of the kind whi

19、ch later formed the basis of structuralism. They were concerned with language or discourse as a social phenomenon. Voloshinovs central insight was that words are active, dynamic social signs, capable of taking on different meanings and connotations for different social classes in different social an

20、d historical situations. He attacked those linguists (including Saussure) who treated language as a synchronic (unhistorical) and abstract system. He rejected the whole notion of The isolated, finished, monologic utterance, divorced from its verbal and actual context and standing open not to any pos

21、sible sort of active response but to passive understanding. Verbal signs are the arena of continuous class struggle: the ruling class will always try to narrow the meaning of words and make social signs uni-accentual, but in times of social unrest the vitality and basic muti-accentuality of linguist

22、ic signs becomes apparent as various class interests clash and intersect upon the ground of language. Hence the notion of heteroglossia. The term refers to the basic condition governing the production of meaning in all discourses. It asserts the way in which context defines the meaning of utterances

23、, which are heterglot in so far as they put in play a multiplicity of social voices and their individual expressions.It was Mikhail Bakhtin who developed the implications of this dynamic view of language for literary texts. He stressed not the way texts reflect society or class interest, but rather

24、the way language is made to disrupt authority and liberate alternative voices. His classic work is Problems of Dostoevskys Poetics (1929), in which he developed a bold contrast between the novels of Tolstoy and those of Dostoevsky. In the former, the various voices we hear are strictly subordinated

25、to the authors controlling purpose: there is only one truth the authors. In contrast to this monologic type of novel, Dostoevsky developed a new polyphonic (or dialogic) form, whose orchestration is non-author/itarian in its refusal to unify the various points of view expressed in the various charac

26、ters. The consciousness of the various characters does not merge with the authors nor do they become subordinated to the authors viewpoint; they retain an integrity and independence, and are not only objects of the authors word, but subjects of their own directly significant word as well. Bakhtins d

27、iscussion of Carnival has important applications both to particular texts and to the history of literary genres. The festivities associated with Carnival are collective and popular; hierarchies are turned on their heads (fools become wise, kings become beggars); opposites are mingled (fact and fanta

28、sy, heaven and hell); the sacred is profaned. The jolly relativity of all things is proclaimed. Everything authoritative, rigid or serious is subverted, loosened and mocked. This essentially popular and libertarian social phenomenon has a formative influence on literature of various periods, but bec

29、omes especially dominant in the Renaissance. Carnivalization is the term Bakhtin uses to describe the shaping effect of Carnival on literary genres.Bahktin raises a number of themes developed by later theorists. Both Romantics and Formalists (including the New Critics) regarded texts as organic unit

30、ies, as integrated structures in which all loose ends are finally gathered up into aesthetic unity by the reader. Bahktins emphasis on Polyphony and Carnival breaks up this unquestioned organicism and promotes the idea that major literary works may be muti-levelled and resistant to unification, ther

31、efore instable and uncertain. This anticipates a major concern of post-structuralism and psychoanalytic criticism, although one should not exaggerate this. 內(nèi)聚焦敘事的陌生化效果這時天更亮了，可以清清楚楚地看到街對面一幢長得沒有盡頭的建筑這是一所醫(yī)院上面惹眼地開著一排排呆板的窗子；雨還在下，不過已成為一滴滴看得清的大顆粒了。（變形記）難道那個人就是他嗎？他現(xiàn)在身子筆直地站著，穿一件有金色紐扣的漂亮的藍(lán)制服，這通常是銀行的雜役穿的；他那厚實的

32、下巴鼓出在上衣堅硬的高領(lǐng)子外面；從他濃密的睫毛下面，那雙黑眼睛射出了神氣十足咄咄逼人的光芒；他那頭本來亂蓬蓬的頭發(fā)如今從當(dāng)中整整齊齊一絲不茍地分了開來，兩邊都梳得又光又平他大概自己也不清楚要干什么；但他卻把腳舉得老高，格里高爾一看到他那大得驚人的鞋后跟簡直嚇壞了。（變形記）今天晚上，很好的月光。我不見他，已是三十多年；今天見了精神分外爽。今天全沒有月光，我知道不妙。早上小心出門，趙貴翁的眼色便怪；似乎怕我，似乎想害我。還有十幾個人，交頭接耳地議論我。陳老五送進(jìn)飯來，一碗菜，一碗蒸魚；這魚的眼睛，白而且硬，張著嘴，同那伙吃人的一樣。趙貴翁和他的狗，也在禮貌，都探頭探腦地挨進(jìn)來。有的看不出面貌，似

33、乎用布包著；有的仍青面獠牙，抿著嘴笑。（狂人日記）從組合到選擇的投射造成的陌生化致橡樹 舒婷我如果愛你絕不像攀援的凌霄花，借你的高枝炫耀自己：我如果愛你絕不學(xué)癡情的鳥兒，為綠蔭重復(fù)單調(diào)的歌曲；也不止像泉源，常年送來清涼的慰籍；也不止像險峰，增加你的高度，襯托你的威儀。甚至日光。甚至春雨。不，這些都還不夠！我必須是你近旁的一株木棉，做為樹的形象和你站在一起。根，緊握在地下，葉，相觸在云里。每一陣風(fēng)過，我們都互相致意，但沒有人聽懂我們的言語。你有你的銅枝鐵干，像刀，像劍，也像戟，我有我的紅碩花朵，像沉重的嘆息，又像英勇的火炬，我們分擔(dān)寒潮、風(fēng)雷、霹靂；我們共享霧靄、流嵐、虹霓，仿佛永遠(yuǎn)分離，卻又終

34、身相依，這才是偉大的愛情，堅貞就在這里：不僅愛你偉岸的身軀，也愛你堅持的位置，腳下的土地。Ode to the West Wind 西風(fēng)頌P.B.Shelley 雪萊I 一 O wild West Wind, thou breath of Autumns being, 哦，獷野的西風(fēng)哦，你哦秋的氣息！Thou, from whose unseen presence the leaves dead 由于你無形無影的出現(xiàn)，萬木蕭疏，Are driven like ghosts from an enchanter fleeing, 似鬼魅逃避驅(qū)魔巫師，蔫黃，魆黑，Yellow, and black,

35、 and pale, and hectic red, 蒼白，潮紅，疫癘摧殘的落葉無數(shù)，Pestilence-stricken multitudes: O thou, 四散飄舞；哦，你又把有翅的種耔Who chariotest to their dark wintry bed 凌空運(yùn)送到他們黑暗的越冬床圃；The winged seeds, where they lie cold and low, 仿佛是一具具僵臥在墳?zāi)估锏氖w，Each like a corpse within its grave, until 他們將分別蟄伏，冷落，而又凄涼，Thine azure sister of the

36、 Spring shall blow 直到陽春你蔚藍(lán)的姐妹向夢中的大地Her clarion oer the dreaming earth, and fill 吹響嘹亮的號角（如同牧放群羊，(Driving sweet buds like flocks to fed in air) 驅(qū)送香甜的花蕾到空中覓食就飲）With living hues and odours plain and hill: 給高山平原注滿生命的色彩和芬芳。Wild spirit, which art moving everywhere; 不羈的精靈，你啊，你到處運(yùn)行；Destroyer and Preserver; h

37、ear, oh, hear! 你破壞，你也保存，聽，哦，聽！II 二Thou on whose stream, mid the steep skys commotion, 在你的川流上，在騷動的高空，Loose clouds like earths decaying leaves are shed, 紛亂的烏云，那雨和電的天使，Shook from the tangled boughs of Heaven and Ocean, 正像大地凋零枯敗的落葉無窮，Angels of rain and lightning: there are spread 掙脫天空和海洋交錯纏接的柯枝，On the b

38、lue surface of thine aery surge, 飄流奔瀉；在你清虛的波濤表面，Like the bright hair uplifted from the head 似酒神女祭司頭上揚(yáng)起的蓬勃青絲，Of some fierce Maenad, even from the dim verge 從那茫茫地平線陰暗的邊緣Of the horizon to the zeniths height, 直到蒼穹的絕頂，到處散布著The locks of the approaching storm. Thou dirge 迫近的暴風(fēng)雨飄搖翻滾的發(fā)卷。Of the dying year, to

39、 which this closing night 你啊，垂死殘年的挽歌，四合的夜幕Will be the dome of a vast sepulchre, 在你聚集的全部水氣威力的支撐下，Vaulted with all thy congregated might 將構(gòu)成他那龐大墓穴的拱形頂部。Of vapours, from whose solid atmosphere 從你那雄渾磅礴的氛圍，將迸發(fā)Black rain, and fire, and hail will burst: oh, hear! 黑色的雨、火、冰雹；哦，聽?。‰p聲敘事與復(fù)調(diào)王桂英，陶醉在奇異的力量里，被這個力量支持

40、著和誘惑著，突然地跳上了十字路口的崗位臺。她戰(zhàn)栗著，莊嚴(yán)地在崗位上走了一步，明白了她是自由的。她做了一個動作她掠頭發(fā)，在那種肉體底特殊的快感里，感覺到這個自由是莊嚴(yán)而無限的。她開始演說?！案魑煌?，一切都擺在我們面前！生和死擺在我們面前！死里求生或者成為日本人奴隸，要我們自己選擇！”王桂英憤怒地大聲說，并且做手勢，“我說了什么？”她微弱地、溫柔地想，從這個思想奇異地得到慰籍?！拔覀冸y道還能夠茍且偷生，貪生怕死！”她大聲說“他們感動了，是的！”她微弱地想“我們要組織起來！為了我們的祖先，為了我們底兒女，為了這一片土地，我們要求生，要反抗，要勝利！”“是的，我說得多么好！”她想，甜蜜地流淚。人群里

41、爆發(fā)了強(qiáng)大的、激賞的喊聲。大的波濤涌了起來。（路翎：財主的兒女們）狂歡化我曾經(jīng)對高密東北鄉(xiāng)極端熱愛，曾經(jīng)對高密東北鄉(xiāng)極端仇恨，長大后努力學(xué)習(xí)馬克思主義，我終于悟到：高密東北鄉(xiāng)無疑是地球上最美麗最丑陋、最超脫最世俗、最圣潔最齷齪、最英雄好漢最王八蛋最能喝酒最能愛的地方。八月深秋，無邊無際的高粱紅成汪洋的血海。高密高粱輝煌，高粱凄婉可人，高粱愛情激蕩。秋風(fēng)蒼涼，陽光很旺，瓦藍(lán)的天空游蕩著一朵朵豐滿的白云，高粱上滑動著一朵朵豐滿白云的紫紅色影子。一隊隊暗紅的人在高粱棵子里穿梭拉網(wǎng)，幾十年如一日。他們殺人越貨，精忠報國，他們演出過一幕幕英勇悲壯的舞劇，使我們這些活著的不肖子孫相形見絀，在進(jìn)步的同時，我

42、真切感到種的退化。（莫言紅高粱）他把我奶奶抱到蓑衣上。奶奶神魂出舍，望著他赤裸的胸膛仿佛看到他強(qiáng)勁剽悍的血液在他黝黑的皮膚下串流不息奶奶心頭撞驢，潛藏了16年的情欲，迸然炸裂在他剛勁動作下，尖刻銳利的痛楚和幸福磨礪著奶奶的神經(jīng)，奶奶低沉喑啞地叫了一聲“天哪”就暈過去了。奶奶和爺爺在生機(jī)勃勃的高粱地里相親相愛，兩顆蔑視人間法規(guī)的不羈心靈，比他們彼此愉悅的肉體貼得更緊。他們在高粱地里耕云播雨，為我們高密東北鄉(xiāng)豐富多彩的歷史上，抹上一道酥紅。我父親可以說是秉領(lǐng)天地精華而孕育，是痛苦與狂歡的結(jié)晶。（莫言紅高粱）“十多年前，我來到在這個城里，一看到那座金碧輝煌的鐘樓我就發(fā)誓要在這里活出個名堂來?？嗫喟桶?/p>

43、奮斗得出人頭地了，誰知道現(xiàn)在卻活得這么不輕松！這里什么真正屬于我的？只有莊之蝶這三個字吧。我名字是我的，用得最多的卻是別人！見了你，我不知道怎么就砰然心動，也不知道哪里就生出了這么大的膽來！”（賈平凹廢都）Anglo-American New Criticism發(fā)展簡史和基本宗旨。萌生于1910-20年代；興起于30年代；繁榮于40年代；衰落于50年代（Austin Warren & R. Wellek Theory of Literature將其制度化，因而僵化；N. Frye的神話-原型批評以更宏大的文化視野挑戰(zhàn)了新批評狹隘的文本主義，標(biāo)志著新批評的衰亡。但它卻影響了幾代英美批評家，如Hi

44、llis Miller, G. Hartman， H. Bloom等）?；咀谥迹篢o oversimplify, what is central to all the diverse inflections of the Anglo-American tradition is a profound, almost reverential regard for literary works themselves: an obsessive concern with the text itself, or the words on the page; with literary works as

45、 icons of human value deployed against 20th century cultural barbarianism; or as an objective, scientific, disinterested criticism of the text but at heart it represents the same aesthetic-humanistic idealization of works of Literature. 奠基于英國Matthew Arnold: replacing philosophy and religion by poetr

46、yT. S. Eliot: Impersonality. Poetry is not a turning loose of emotion, but an escape from emotion; it is not the expression of personality, but an escape from personality.objective co-relative: Eliot describes the work of art as an objective correlative for the experience which may have engendered i

47、t: an impersonal recreation which is the autonomous object of attention. (It is closely related to the notion the image which is central to the poetics of Ezra Pound.) I. A. Richards: emotive language of poetry vs. referential language of science;情感組織論：詩歌的功能是組織情感，所以最好的詩是具有包容異質(zhì)性（heterogeneity）的包容詩（po

48、etry of inclusion）.“The business of the poet, as we have seen, is to give order and coherence, and so freedom, to a body of experience. To do so through words which act as its skeleton, as a structure by which the impulses which make up the experience are adjusted to on another and act together.”(I.

49、 A. Richards: “Poetry and Belief”)William Empson: ambiguity繁榮于美國美國新批評的背景代表人物John Crowe Ransom: tissue. “criticism is not ethical, linguistic or historical studies, which; the critic should be able to exhibit not the prose core to which a poem may be reduced but the diffentia, residue, or tissue whic

50、h keeps the object poetical or entire. The character of the poem resides for the good critic in its way of exhibiting the residuary quality.” Cleanth Brooks: irony and paradoxW. K. Wimsatt and Monroe C. Beardsley: two Fallacies and verbal icon. “The design of or intention of the author is neither av

51、ailable nor desirable as a standard from judging the success of a work of literary art; a poem goes about the world beyond the authors power to intend about it or control it it belongs to the public; it should be understood in terms of the dramatic speaker of the text, not the author.” “Affective Fa

52、llacy represents a confusion between the poem and its result: trying to derive the standard of criticism from the psychological effects of the poem ends in impressionism and relativism.”The importance of a poem is that by fixing emotions and making them more permanently perceptible, by the survival

53、of its clear and nicely interrelated meanings, its completeness, balance, and tension, it represents the most precise emotive report on customs: in short, though cultures have changed, poems remain and explain. Poems, in other words, are our cultural heritage, permanent and valuable artifacts. Mark

54、Schorer: form is the achieved contentChicago School of Neo-Aristotelians: R. S. Crane and W. Booths separating of reliable and unreliable narrators.美國新批評的基本詩學(xué)觀詩歌可以探索真理；詩歌的真理是探索感性與理性的結(jié)合，這是一種科學(xué)無法處理的（悖論性的）存在狀態(tài)而這個狀態(tài)才是生命存在的本源詩歌就是復(fù)原這個本真本源的生命和經(jīng)驗的原始狀態(tài)；手段是張力性的言說（“ I am using the term (tension) not as a gener

55、al metaphor, but as a special one, derived from lopping the prefixes off the logical terms extension and intension. What I am saying, of course, is that the meaning of poetry is its tension , the full organized body of all the extension and intension that we can find in it.”. John Orley Allen Tate:

56、Tension in Poetry. p.56）；Our two souls therefore, which are one, /Though I must go, endure not yet/ breach, but an expansion,/ Like gold to airy thinness beat. (John Donne, A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning)因此，/ 我倆合一個靈魂，/雖然離開。/卻還沒有/造成裂痕，而是像黃金/展成金箔，/薄如空氣。（約翰-多恩，別離辭：臨別莫悲傷）營造張力的具體詩歌語言是irony, paradox,

57、ambiguity, ambivalence；基于以上基本觀點(diǎn)，決定了美國新批評的文本中心主義立場，具體體現(xiàn)在兩個“謬誤”說；操作方法：close reading;與Russian formalism的異同。 希臘古甕頌 Ode on a Grecian Urn濟(jì)慈 John Keats你“寧靜”的保持著童貞的新娘， Thou still unravishd bride of quietness,“沉默”和漫長的“時間”領(lǐng)養(yǎng)的少女， Thou forster-child of silence and slow time,山林的歷史家，你如此美妙地敘講 Sylvan historian, who

58、 canst thus express 如花的故事，勝過我們的詩句： A flowery tale more sweetly than our rhyme:綠葉鑲邊的傳說在你的身上纏， What leaf-fringd legend hunts about thy shape 講的可是神，或人，或神人在一道， Of deities or mortals, or of both, 活躍在滕陂，或阿卡狄谷地？ In Tempe or the dales of Arcady?什么人，什么神？什么姑娘不情愿？ What men or gods are these? What maidens both

59、怎樣瘋狂的追求？竭力地逃脫？ What mad pursuit? What struggle to escape? 什么笛，鈴鼓？怎樣忘情地狂喜？ What pipes and timbrels? What wild ecstasy?聽見的樂曲是悅耳，聽不見的旋律 Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard 更甜美：風(fēng)笛呵，你該繼續(xù)吹奏； Are sweeter; therefore, ye soft pipes, play on;不是對耳朵，而是對心靈奏出 Not to the sensual ear, but, more endeard, 無聲的

60、樂曲，送上更多的溫柔； Pipe to the spirit ditties of no tone:樹下的美少年，你永遠(yuǎn)不停地歌唱， Fair youth, beneath the trees, thou canst not leave那些樹木也永遠(yuǎn)不可能凋枯； Thy song, nor ever can those trees be bare; 大膽的情郎，你永遠(yuǎn)得不到一吻， Bold lover, never, never canst thou kiss,雖然接近了目標(biāo)你可別悲傷， Though winning near the goalyet, do not grieve; 她永遠(yuǎn)不衰