二語習(xí)得引論

1、主要研究成果Chapter 3. The linguistics of SLA. The nature of languagesocialword mea ningDiscourselevels of aIan guageMorphology (word structure)Syntax (grammar)Lexic on (vocabulary)Phono logy (so und system)pronun ciati on; spell inggramma ti cal category (part of speech)combi nation; idiomsphon emesinton

2、 ati on patter ns; tonessyllable structurerhythmic patter ns (pauses and stops)morphemesin flee tions that carry gramma ticalinf orma tionprefixes and suffixesword orderagreeme nt betwee n sentence eleme ntsways to form senten cesways to connet senten ces and orga nizeinf orma tions across senten ce

3、sstructures for tell ing stories, etcscripts for in terac ting and eve nts. The nature of languagesocialword mea ningDiscourselevels of aIan guageMorphology (word structure)Syntax (grammar)Lexic on (vocabulary)Phono logy (so und system)pronun ciati on; spell inggramma ti cal category (part of speech

4、)combi nation; idiomsphon emesinton ati on patter ns; tonessyllable structurerhythmic patter ns (pauses and stops)morphemesin flee tions that carry gramma ticalinf orma tionprefixes and suffixesword orderagreeme nt betwee n sentence eleme ntsways to form senten cesways to connet senten ces and orga

5、nizeinf orma tions across senten cesstructures for tell ing stories, etcscripts for in terac ting and eve ntsEarly approaches to SLAContrastive Analysis (CA). as a beginning of the survey:aspects of its procedures are still incorporated in more recent approaches.It introduced the influence of L1 on

6、L2 (Chomsky).CA:anapproachtothestudyofSLAwhichinvolvespredictingand explaining learner problems based on a comparison of L1 and L2 to determine similarities and differences.(Based on idealized linguistic structures attributed to native speakers of L1 and L2). influenced by Structuralism and Behavior

7、ism. Goal of CA was primarily pedagogical in nature: to increase efficiency in L2 teaching and testing.the surface forms ofL1 and L2 systemsph ono logyTmorphologystructuralistlin guis ticsfdescrib and compare117syn taxbottom-i the lafocusph ono logyTmorphologystructuralistlin guis ticsfdescrib and c

8、ompare117syn taxbottom-i the lafocus:nguageslexi onupone level oncel discourse jCA ” assump tionslbehaviorist psychologyLA esse ntiallyinvoves habitformationsti mulus-resp on se-reino frceme nt(S-R-R)transfer(in SLA) the tra nsfer ofeleme nts acquired in L1 to thetarget L2Lli nguis tic in putresp on

9、dhabituate.prac tice makesperfect. Process:Describing L1 and L2 at different levelAna l yz i ng comparab l e segment of the l anguage for e l ements that maycause problems for learners (interference)Types of interferenceExamplessame form and meaning;las palomas blancas (Spanish)different distributi

10、onthe white dovessame meaning;kittiesdifferent form小貓們same meaning;water (n. v.)differentformand水（名）distributi ondifferent form;legpartial overlap in meaning腿，蹄，下肢similar form; different meaningasistir (Spanish “to attend” ) assist (English “to help” ). Assessment:Cannot explain the logical problem

11、of Ianguage learning (how learners know more than theyve heard and been taught)Not always validated by evidence from actual learner errors.Stimulated the preparation of comparative grammarItsanalyticprocedureshavebeenusefullyappliedtodescriptive studies and to translationError analysis (EA). EA: the

12、 first approach to the study of SLA which includes an internalfocusonlearnerscreativeabilitytoconstructlanguage. (based on the description and analysis of actual learner errors inL2). CATEAPredictionsbyCAnotalwayscorrect;manyreallearnererrorsare not transferred from L1Focus on surface-level forms an

13、d patternsTunderlying rulesBehaviorismTmentalism (emphasis on the innate capacity)Teach ing con cer ns as motivati onJ. Procedures for analyzing learner errors:Collection of a sample of learner languageIdentification of errorsDescription of errorsExplanation of errorsEvaluation of errors. Shortcomin

14、gsAmbiguity in classificationLack of positive dataPotential for avoidanceInterlanguage (IL). IL refers to the intermediate states (interim grammars) of a learners language as it moves toward the target L2. Characteristics:SystematicDynamicVariableReduced system, both in form and function. Difference

15、s between SLA and L1 acquisition by childrenLanguage transfer from L1 to L2Transfer of training, or how the L2 is taughtStrategies of 2nd language learningOvergeneralization of the target language linguistic materials. L1 as fossilization for L2 learners:Fossilization: the probability that they ll c

16、ease their IL development in some respects before they reach target language norms, in spite of continuing L2 input and passage time.Relates to: the age of learning; social identity; communicative need.Morpheme order studies. Refers to： an important Q in the study of SLA, whether there isa natural o

17、rder (or universal sequence) in the grammatical development of L2 learners. Inflection: it adds one or more units of meaning to the base form of a word, to give it a more specific meaning. (plural nouns, past tense etc.). The order of morpheme acquisition reported was similar in L1 and L2It supports

18、 an Identity Hypothesis (L1=L2): that processes involved in L1 and L2 acquisition are the same. The concept of natural order remains very important forunderstand i ng SLA. (both from l i ngu i st i c and cogn i t i ve approaches)Monitor model. One of the last of the ear ly approaches which has an in

19、ternal focusin the Monitor Model.(Stephen Krashen). It explicitly and essentially adopts the notion of a languageacquisition device (LAD) (Chomsky used for childrens innate knowledge of language). Krashens approach: 5 hypothesesaffective filter hypothesismon itor hypothesisn atral order hypothesisr5

20、hypothesisacquisiti onacquisiti on- lear ning hypothesislear ningsubc on sciousinn ate lan guage acquisiti on device-con sciousaffective filter hypothesismon itor hypothesisn atral order hypothesisr5hypothesisacquisiti onacquisiti on- lear ning hypothesislear ningsubc on sciousinn ate lan guage acqu

21、isiti on device-con sciousr-s exemplified by the L2 lear ningin putcomprehe nsiviblehypothesisin put、understandableenoughwhat is lear ned is availableonly as a mon itoracquire the rules of Ian guagein a predictable orderin put may not be processed if theaffec tive filter is upConsensus:. What is bei

22、ng acquired in SLA is a “rule0governed” language systems. How SLA take place involves creative mental processes. Why some learners are more (less) successful in SLA than others relates primarily to the age of the learner.Universal Grammar (UG)UG (Chomsky): what all languages have in common. Two impo

23、rtant conceptslinguistic competenee (speaker-hearers underlying knowledge of language) needs to be accounted for LAsuch knowledge of language what could be learned from the input. (the logic problem of language learning/ the poverty-of-the stimulus argument). The nature of speaker-hearers competence

24、 in native language can be explained only by innate knowledge that human genetically endowed with. The innate knowledge is in the language facultyLanguage faculty: a component of the human mind, physically represented in the brain and part of the biological endowment of the species.Principles and Pa

25、rameters. With Chomskys reconceptualization of UG in the Principles and ParametersframeworkoftencalledtheGovernmentandBinding(GB) model and the subsequent introduction of the Minimalist program, there came a new idea about the acquisition process. UG has been conceptualized as a set of principles wh

26、ich are properties of all languages in the world.Some of these principles contain parameters. What is acquired in L1 acquisition (not UG itself):LA includes a process of selecting among the limited parametric options in UG that match the settings which are encountered in linguistic input. How acquis

27、ition occurs for children: natural; instinctive; internal to the cognitive system. Why some learners are more successful:Irrelevant with L1 acquisition, for all native speakers attain essentially the same final state. (For SLA, attitudes; motivation and social context matters)3. UG and SLAStatesUGSL

28、AInitial stateMake parametric choices that are appropriate for L1 (Guided by UG)L1 transferNature and development of interlanguageFinal stateNative language; sameWhymoresuccessfulrelevant to L2:The degree of access to UGRelationshipsbetweenL1&L2 T differential transfer or interferenceL2 input qual i

29、tyDegree of perceptionDegree of specification for lexical featuresFunctional approachesFunctional approach. Based on: the framework of Functionalism2). Characteristics of functional approaches to SLAFocus on the use of Ianguage in real situations (performanee) and underlying knowledge (competence)As

30、sumption: purpose of language is communication; LA and SLA require communicative useConcern about the sentence, discourse structure, how language is used in interaction; include aspects of communication beyond languageSystemic linguistics (M.A.K.Halliday). Systemic linguistics is a model for analyzi

31、ng language in termsof the interrelated systems of choices that are available for expressing meaning.“l(fā)anguage acquisition needs to be seen as the mastery of linguistic functions”. What language learners acquire: meaning potential. Process of acquisition:mastering certain basic functions of language

32、developing a meaning potential for each. pragmatic functions development in L1 acquisition:instrumental T regulatory Tinteraetional Tpersonal TheuristicT imag in ati onT represe ntati onal.linguistiestruetures:direetlyrefleetionsofthefunetionsthat language serves; related to the social and personal

33、needsFunctional Typology. Based on: the comparative study of a wide range of the worlds language. Goal: to describe patterns of similarities and differences amonglanguages; to determine which types and patterns occur more/less frequently or are universal in distribution. Application: why some L2 con

34、structions are more/less difficult than others for L2 learners to acquire; for the selectivety of crosslinguistic influence or transfer. important concept: markedness (deals with whether any specificfeature of language is marked or unmarked). Markedness differential prediction for SLAFeatureL1inFeat

35、ure in L2Predicti onMarkedUnmarked (common)L2 feature wilbe easy to learnL1 feature wilL2l not transfer toUnmarkedMarkedL1 feature will transfer to L2In L1 acquisition, unmarked before markedIn SLA, unmarked elements are easier to master than marked ones. Compared with CA: Functionaltypologygoesbeyo

36、ndthesurface-levelstructural(CA)to more abstract patterns, principles and constraints;the Markedness Differential Hypothesis. implications:some aspects of some languages are more difficultwhysometypesandpatternsoffeaturesaremore/lessfrequentin native and 2nd language (factors: perceptual salience, e

37、ase of cognitiveprocessing,physicalconstraints,communicativeneeds)Function-to-form mapping. Basic concept: L1 and L2 acquisition involves a process of grammaticalization. Grammaticalization: a grammatical function is first conveyed byshared extralinguistic knowledge and inferencing based on the context of discourse, then by a lexical word, and only later by a grammatical marker.Driven by: communicative need and use.Related to : the development of more efficient cognitive processIn all la nguages: to expressfunc