經(jīng)濟(jì)金融企業(yè)管理外文翻譯外文文獻(xiàn)英文文獻(xiàn)

UpgradinginGlobalValueChainsmedium-sizedLatinAmericanenterprises (SMEs)mayparticipateinglobalmarketsinawaythatprovidesforto contrastingwiththe‘‘lowroad,’’typicaloffirmsfromdevelopingcountries,whichbyandoftenexplainedbythedifferentcapabilities offirmsto‘‘upgrade.’ Inthispaper,upgradingreferstothecapacityofafirmtoinnovateto& Capitalizingononeofthemostproductiveareasa1997)developedanddevelopingoftoononcoming from intraclustervertical and horizontal relationships1995), importanceofexternallinkages.Duetorecentchangesinproductiontechnologies,enterprisesandclustersareincreasinglyintegratedinvaluechainsthaton1producers.TheinternalgovernanceofthevaluechainhasanimportantIndeed,extensiveevidenceonLatinAmericarevealsthatboththelocalasasininstance,upgradingmaybelimitedinsomeformsofvaluechains,andclusterswithlittledevelopedexternaleconomiesandMoreover,bothstrandsofliteraturewereconceivedanddevelopedtoovercomethesectoraldimensionintheanalysisofindustrialorganizationanddynamism.Ononofindifferentstagesofthefilie′re,movedbeyondthetraditionalunitsofanalysisofindustrialeconomics:thefirmandthesector.Ontheotherhand,accordingtoinsamevaluechain(Gereffi,1994).Nevertheless,SMEslocatedinclustersandaandinespeciallyaThecontributionthispapermakesisbytakingintoaccountupgradingissimultaneouslyaffectedbybylatteriscruciallyshapedbythreecharacteristics:(i)thecollectiveefficiencyoftheclusterintheofoftheinwhichSMEsparticipate,and(iii)thepeculiarfeaturesthat3of2introducesacategorizationofgroupsofsectors,basedonthenotionsrealityofLatinAmerica.Section4reportstheoriginalempiricalaDuringthelasttwodecades,thesuccessfulperformanceofindustrialdevelopedworld,particularlyinItaly,hasstimulatednew attention to the potential offeredbythisformof industrialorganizationforfirmsofdevelopingcountries.Thecapabilityofclusteredfirmstobeeconomicallyviableandgrowhasattractedagreatdeal1ofSMEsisrathercommon,andawiderangeofcaseshassincebeenreported.2Obviously,inaall thetheas3asaforaoformayasuppliers,theappearanceofagentswhoselltodistantnationalandinternationalaof positiveimpactsofthesefactorsonthecompetitivenessoffirms(CE)definedasthecompetitiveadvantagederivedfromlocalexternalof4byeconomies (EE)areofimportancein explaining thecompetitivenessofindustrialbutisaat35Thecombinationofbothincidentalexternaleconomiesandtheeffectsofactivetheofofaand,incidental,passiveexternaleconomiesmaynotsufficewithoutjointactions,andthelatterhardlydevelopintheabsenceofexternaleconomies.Thus,ourfocusisonroleofintraclusterverticalandhorizontalrelationshipsgeneratingcollectiveefficiency.bytheoftheofinformationtechnologies,suggestthatmoreattentionneedstobepaidtoexternallinkages.6Gereffi’sglobalvaluechainustoFromananalyticalpointofview,thevaluechainperspectiveisusefulbecausetotheotheractivitiesinvolvedinthesupplyofgoodsandservices,andtototheiskeytoValuechainresearchfocusesonthenatureoftherelationshipsamongvariousinon&ordertotakedecisionsnotonlyon‘‘what’’shouldbe,orsomethingbutthelattercase,followingHumphreyandSchmitz4oforwithinthechain;(b)quasi-hierarchyinvolvingrelationshipsbetweenainthethetotheoftheaForinatheneedtotoYet,(1999),mainlyfocusingonEastatheoftheandproducers. Pietrobelli and Rabellotti (2004) a moredifferentiatedpictureforLatinAmerica.theoftotheofinaoffersveryfavorableconditionsforprocessandproductupgrading,buttoforcountryproducers.ais&2002b):quasi-hierarchicalgovernanceiscostlyfortheleadfirmandleadstoofdoininoforganizingproduction,thatis,theclusterandthevaluechain,offerinterestingopportunitiesfortheupgradingandmodernizationoflocal5insrl n o l n upgrading, we need tounderstandtheirorganizationofinterfirmlinkagesandtheirinternalgovernance.Furthermore,asweexplaininthefollowingsection,thenatureoftheirdominantaedsgELNetfgr,gm,rgnoedshasoftenbeenusedinstudiesonapproach,upgradingisdecisivelyrelatedtoinnovation.Herewedefineupgradingasinnovatingtoincreasevalueadded.7Enterprisesas,forexample,byenteringhigherunitvaluemarketnichesororbynew(orawherefourtypesofupgradingaresingledout(Humphrey&Schmitz,2000):—Processupgradingistransforminginputsintooutputsmoreisto—Functionalupgradingisacquiringnew,superiorfunctionsinthesuch as design or marketing or abandoning existing low-value addedis a a&&a6Ourfocusonupgradingrequiresmovingastepforwardandawayfromregisters ex-post gaps in relative productivity which internationaltradeflows,successinfirmlevelupgradingenablesthedynamicacquisitionofcompetitivenessinnewmarketniches,sectorsorsum,thelogicgoesfrominnovation,toupgrading,totheacquisitionoffirm-level8Inthis paper,wearguethattheconceptofcompetitive advantageincreasinglyatotargetonlyproductionefficiency.Infact,thisisnotenough,andcompetitiveadvantageisthetooftheofofimperfectcompetitionindomesticandinternationalmarketsand(ii)thepresenceofinthevaluechain.ofsegments rather than simply focusing on efficiency regardlessofprevailingproductivespecialization(asadvocatedbythetheoryofCA).Moreover,externalities.for in the andmayallvulnerability of an enterprise’s specialization.Competitionin7andinnovation,management,distributionandretail,etc.).Therefore,functionalupgradingmaybringaboutmoreenduringandsolidcompetitiveness.reasons,theconceptofproductionefficiencyisencompassedwithinthebroaderconceptofcompetitiveness,andtheeffortstoupgradefunctionallyandtoaretorentsandexternalitiesemerginginspecificstagesofthevaluechain,marketniches,orsectors.Anadditionalelementthatcruciallyaffectstheupgradingprospectsoffirmsandclustersisthesectoraldimension.Insofaraswehaveupgradingasinnovatingtoincreasevalueadded,thenallthefactorsanew the that thesestudiesarenotcomparativebutratherdetailedintraasyenenfnd,edeetftsnsbythecontextevolutionaryeconomicsbyNelsonandWinter(1982).Itreferstotheevidence that some aspects of technological knowledge are wellarticulated,writtendowninmanualsandpapers,andtaught.Othersarewhichcanbefreelyusedbyitsowners,butthatcannotbeeasilyexpressedand Thetacitcomponentoftechnologicalknowledgemakesitstransferanda a may require anorganizationtobeactiveintheearlierstagesofitsdevelopment,andacloseandcontinuous interaction between the user and the producer—a of economicactivities.a8AmericancountriesTheimpactofcollectiveefficiencyandpatternsofgovernanceontheoftoisin9Asofofproductandprocessupgrading(asinthecaseoftextilesandthemostuniversities(as,thepropertiesoffirmknowledgebasesacross&theofinforexample,inidiosyncraticexternalitiesandcooperationamonglocalactors.,firms,researchcenters,andtechnologyandqualitydiffusioncenters),inotherwords,upgradingdependsonthenaturalresource-basedfirms)technologyismorecodifiedandthetoexternalsources of knowledge such as transnational corporations(TNCs,or researchlaboratorieslocatedindevelopedcountriesbecomemorecriticalforupgrading.globalbuyersinfostering(orhindering)theupgradingindifferentclusters.Thus,forbe upgradingifthetechnologyrequiredismainlytacitandrequiresMoreover,intraditionalmanufacturingindustries,characterizedbyalowdegreeoftobeiniftheyhaveverylowtechnologicalcapabilities.Therefore,tightsupervisionanddirectsupporton9andtotheofnon&Schmitz,2002b).Thesituationisattheoppositeextremeinthecaseofcomplexproducts,complexityrequiresthatfirmshaveinternaltechnologicalcapabilitiestosubcontracted,otherwiselargebuyerswouldnotcontractthematall.atheAmericancase.11sAmerica,houseR&Dactivitiesareverylowbothindomesticandforeignfirms(Archibugi&domestic inter sectoral linkages have been&andto&10inbasedsectorsandhasweakeneditspositioninmoreengineeringintensiveindustries(Katz,2001),reflectingitsrichendowmentofnaturalresources,relativelymorethanhumanand(Wood&,ensysdyrnonofupgradingyshs,,theofComplex productsindustries (COPs), including, among autocomponentsandaircraftindustries,ICTandconsumerelectronics;4.Specializedintoachange,dependenceonbasicorappliedresearch,modesofin-houseinnovation.,s e D , s knowledge, scale and relevance of R&D activity, andappropriability of10innovation(Table1).s fgSMEspotential for upgrading within clustersand value chains. Traditional manufacturingisdefinedassupplierbyofinputs.,machinery,materials,etc.).Indeed,firmtorsdygrgw’designs,ofteninteractingwithlargebuyersthatincreasinglyplayaroleinbasic andapplied science, which, due to low appropriabilitysuppliers.,chemicals, machinery, etc.) which achieve economies of scale x s e d sh , e,rsdyatf(eelksydoea aims,therelationshipsoflocalsupplierswiththese maybecrucialto(orandof&1993),the processoftechnicalchangeisrealizedwithinanarchitecturalset&AmongtheSpecializedSuppliers,weonlyconsidersoftware,whichistypicallyclientdriven.Thisisanespeciallypromisingsectorfordevelopingcountries’SMEs,toand ofthetheoftoextendsthescopeforadeeperinternationaldivisionoflabor.the11opensupnewmarketnicheswithlowentrybarriers(Torrisi,2003).However,atsametime,theproximityofthemarket andofclientsmaycruciallyimprove theofandThispaperalsoaimsatanalyzing with original empirical evidencewhether—andhow—thesectoralThisstudyisbasedonthecollectionoforiginaldatafrom12 clustersinLatinto2003withthesupportoftheAmericanDeskandfieldstudieswereundertakenfollowingthesamewhichpublicationsandCasestudieswereselectedwhichfulfilledthefollowing(1)of17(2)upgrading:theclustersselectedhaveexperiencedsomedegreeofupgrading,ofwhatevernature.,product,process,functional,intersectoral);and(3)all inofAatherealityofclustersandvaluechainsinLA.Thus,althoughitcannotclaimtocorrespondtotheofin it aallows reasonable12generalizations.consistsofasystematicattempttoquantifyonLikertscales,foreachoftheclustersinvestigated,thedimensionstobeanalyzed:theofcollectiveefficiency and levels of upgrading. Cluster studies have been categorizeda—Hence,aofmarketaccessforexternaleconomies;backwardandforwardverticallinkages,samewasdonewithreferencetoproduct,process,functional,andintersectoralupgrading:avalueidentifiedthenumberandmodeofgovernance(market,network,quasi-hierarchy,andevidencewasderivedfromotherpublishedsources,weminimizetheoccurrenceofbiasitkeyinformantsandexperts.Nevertheless,aswithanystudyofthiskind,thereproblemsontheaccuracyoftheresults,whichwillthereforecallforbyarehappensindevelopingcountries,theyareusuallyavailableatthenationalorlocalrelationshipswithinthesamevaluechain.Therefore,theempiricalanalysishastorelyon the by 13oftocausalrelationshipsbutrathertoexplorethehypothesespresentedabovewithrich, newlygatheredempiricalevidenceonLatinaoftheof a longer study, where summarizeddescriptionsofthecasestudiesintheare&【譯文】14、銷售、發(fā)送和輔助其品中進(jìn)行種種一集合體而所有這 些可以用一(value chain) 來表明 。隨著國際外包務(wù)日益增多(global value chainGVC)概 念應(yīng)運(yùn)而指性跨網(wǎng)絡(luò)組織原料采集和運(yùn)輸、品的 處理中進(jìn)行杰瑞菲 (Gary Gereffi)通研究不同環(huán)節(jié)之間相互聯(lián)系分布世界各國體系后發(fā)現(xiàn)往往由一或幾領(lǐng)導(dǎo)、領(lǐng)導(dǎo)通環(huán)節(jié)著。領(lǐng)導(dǎo)可以分(producer-指進(jìn)行由處環(huán)節(jié)大控領(lǐng)導(dǎo)公司通國際巨頭們后向控原材料和配應(yīng)分銷售聯(lián)系這種、飛機(jī)、算機(jī)、半導(dǎo)體及重機(jī)械等資、技術(shù)密集行中很典家 ()，2、鞋、玩具、手工藝及電器等。購買驅(qū)包括原料處理、 設(shè)計(jì)、 紡織、 衣等過程 。測(cè)算利潤(rùn)分配： 設(shè)計(jì)占40％ 營占50占10％ 。明顯全球設(shè)計(jì)營處端加工處于端購買驅(qū)即大、營銷、廠構(gòu)營。他們控制價(jià)值鏈15、利潤(rùn)份額多的設(shè)計(jì)、品牌、營銷環(huán)節(jié)，而把低、利潤(rùn)份額少的加工環(huán)節(jié)配置在勞動(dòng)力密集、工資低廉的國家和地區(qū)。例如，亞洲早先的新興工業(yè)化國家(地區(qū))以及后來的國內(nèi)地、越南等地。近些年來，全球服裝價(jià)鏈 已延伸到非洲、美洲的一些國家，但重心仍在亞洲。發(fā)達(dá)國家在服裝加工失去比較優(yōu)勢(shì)后，無一例外地都轉(zhuǎn)向服裝價(jià)鏈端，實(shí)現(xiàn)服裝產(chǎn)業(yè)的升級(jí)。例如：意大利已經(jīng)形成了紡織品、服裝服飾以及檔時(shí)裝的設(shè)計(jì)、加工、銷售一條龍的運(yùn)作體系，構(gòu)成了完整的產(chǎn)業(yè)鏈，并成為時(shí)尚潮流的源， 全球級(jí)品牌服裝業(yè)發(fā)、 設(shè)計(jì)，到勞動(dòng)力的發(fā)國家，成品的品牌，在國內(nèi)銷售美國大品牌集如 LizC1aiborne 、Lord&Taylor 等了國場(chǎng)，他們很多設(shè)計(jì)和銷售，的，在售集有專賣柜臺(tái)，品牌，產(chǎn)品設(shè)計(jì)后發(fā)國家牌加工，后們經(jīng)銷。國服裝業(yè)在全球價(jià)鏈的地位達(dá)17(OEM)的 14于 扎 (OBM)· 邦威森馬等開始控制基本還進(jìn)入脫離雅戈?duì)柹忌嫉纫簿救?，還以。控制；乎控制力總尋找新更便宜供應(yīng)來源我勞力成本日本歐盟來對(duì)和孟拉等展家本優(yōu)勢(shì)會(huì)逐漸減弱外， 。中心轉(zhuǎn)移最基本原是： 領(lǐng)導(dǎo)廠商總是力圖將價(jià)值鏈中勞動(dòng)密集程度最高163 ——內(nèi)部?jī)?yōu)化比自己競(jìng)爭(zhēng)對(duì)手做得庫