tpo閱讀真題（黃金閱讀）part1

tpo閱讀真題（黃金閱讀）part1

具體內(nèi)容從第二頁開始

本文檔中所涉及到的所有托福文章、托福題目、托福答案等內(nèi)容之版權(quán)均歸ETS所有。佐托佑福所做之工作僅為收集、

整理而已。歡迎轉(zhuǎn)載，但請不要進(jìn)行任何添加、刪除、移位、標(biāo)記等修改動作。謝謝。

名稱：佐托佑福

成立時間：2013年6月10日

地址：太原市小店區(qū)長治路世貿(mào)中心B座1006

網(wǎng)址：

電話/p>

特點：只做托福；1對1;無具體授課方法，根據(jù)學(xué)生情況量身訂做；免費提供面簽指導(dǎo)；簽訂保分協(xié)議

佐托佑福的創(chuàng)始人是一個叫做Cela的家伙。他從中學(xué)上外國語學(xué)校的時候起，經(jīng)過大學(xué)的英語專業(yè)，經(jīng)過畢業(yè)后十年

的英語相關(guān)的工作，Cela和英語已經(jīng)打了將近20年的交道了。

沒有金剛鉆，不攬瓷器活。Cela中學(xué)讀的是外國語學(xué)校，在外教的幫助下，打下了堅實且正確的英語基礎(chǔ)。Cela大學(xué)

讀的是英語專業(yè)，因美女眾多，開銷較大，故大二開始幫別人考四六級，勉強(qiáng)維持生活。大四憑借專八證書開始替別

人考托福，收入頗豐，從此以后當(dāng)托福結(jié)下了不解之緣。

大學(xué)畢業(yè)后先后轉(zhuǎn)戰(zhàn)北京、上海、深圳等城市，在新東方、華爾街、美聯(lián)等英語大佬的地盤上辛勤趕場工作。雖然收

入尚可，無奈房價太高，故繼續(xù)與托福的緣分，不時幫別人補(bǔ)習(xí)托福。后又混跡于太傻、新通等留學(xué)大佬，把托福的

兄弟，美國面簽也搞了個通透。

總在外面飄著也不是個事。鑒于苦難的太原同學(xué)們考托福都要跑到幾百公里以外的北京去培訓(xùn)的事實，更鑒于Cela這

個家伙想攢錢買豪車的事實。最終Cela決定攜老婆孩子回到家鄉(xiāng)太原，自立門戶，開辦了太原唯一針對托福的英語教

育機(jī)構(gòu)-佐托佑福！

親，你來報名-那最好！Cela幫你過考試，你幫Cela攢銀子。

親，你不來報名-那也好！Cela幫你指導(dǎo)考試方法及尋找考試資料?，你幫Cela做宣傳。

親，無論你來不來報名，Cela叮你都是雙贏。

任何問題、疑慮、不滿、建議、意見等，請直接打電話或登錄網(wǎng)站在留言板上留言。

佐托佑福歡迎你。

OG

AppliedArtsandFineArts

Althoughwenowtendtorefertothevariouscraftsaccordingtothematerialsusedtoconstructthem—clay,glass,wood,

fiber,andmetal—itwasoncecommontothinkofcraftsintermsoffunction,whichledtotheirbeingknownasthe“applied

arts."Approachingcraftsfromthepointofviewoffunction,wecandividethemintosimplecategories:containers,sheltersand

supports.Thereisnowayaroundthefactthatcontainers,shelters,andsupportsmustbefunctional.Theappliedartsarethus

boundbythelawsofphysics,whichpertaintoboththematerialsusedintheirmakingandthesubstancesandthingstobe

contained,supported,andsheltered.Theselawsareuniversalintheirapplication,regardlessofculturalbeliefs,geography,or

climate.Ifapothasnobottomorhaslargeopeningsinitssides,itcouldhardlybeconsideredacontainerinanytraditional

sense.Sincethelawsofphysics,notsomearbitrarydecision,havedeterminedthegeneralformofapplied-artobjects,they

followbasicpatterns,somuchsothatfunctionalformscanvaryonlywithincertainlimits.Buildingswithoutroofs,forexample,

areunusualbecausetheydepartfromthenorm.However,notallfunctionalobjectsareexactlyalike;thatiswhywerecognizea

ShangDynastyvaseasbeingdifferentfromanIncavase.Whatvariesisnotthebasicformbuttheincidentaldetailsthatdonot

obstructtheobject'sprimaryfunction.

Sensitivitytophysicallawsisthusanimportantconsiderationforthemakerofapplied-artobjects.Itisoftentakenfor

grantedthatthisisalsotrueforthemakeroffine-artobjects.Thisassumptionmissesasignificantdifferencebetweenthetwo

disciplines.Fine-artobjectsarenotconstrainedbythelawsofphysicsinthesamewaythatapplied-artobjectsare.Because

theirprimarypurposeisnotfunctional,theyareonlylimitedintermsofthematerialsusedtomakethem.Sculpturesmust,for

example,bestable,whichrequiresanunderstandingofthepropertiesofmass,weightdistribution,andstress.Paintingsmust

haverigidstretcherssothatthecanvaswillbetaut,andthepaintmustnotdeteriorate,crack,ordiscolor.Theseareproblems

thatmustbeovercomebytheartistbecausetheytendtointrudeuponhisorherconceptionofthework.Forexample,inthe

earlyItalianRenaissance,bronzestatuesofhorseswitharaisedforelegusuallyhadacannonballunderthathoof.Thiswas

donebecausethecannonballwasneededtosupporttheweightoftheleg.Inotherwords,thedemandsofthelawsofphysics,

notthesculptor'saestheticintentions,placedtheballthere.Thatthisdevicewasanecessarystructuralcompromiseisclear

fromthefactthatthecannonballquicklydisappearedwhensculptorslearnedhowtostrengthentheinternalstructureofastatue

withironbraces(ironbeingmuchstrongerthanbronze).

Eventhoughthefineartsinthetwentiethcenturyoftentreatmaterialsinnewways,thebasicdifferenceinattitudeof

artistsinrelationtotheirmaterialsinthefineartsandtheappliedartsremainsrelativelyconstant.Itwouldthereforenotbetoo

greatanexaggerationtosaythatpractitionersofthefineartsworktoovercomethelimitationsoftheirmaterials,whereasthose

engagedintheappliedartsworkinconcertwiththeirmaterials.

Paragraph1:Althoughwenowtendtorefertothevariouscraftsaccordingtothematerialsusedtoconstructthem—clay,

glass,wood,fiber,andmetal—itwasoncecommontothinkofcraftsintermsoffunction,whichledtotheirbeingknownas

the"appliedarts.*'Approachingcraftsfromthepointofviewoffunction,wecandividethemintosimplecategories:containers,

sheltersandsupports.Thereisnowayaroundthefactthatcontainers,shelters,andsupportsmustbefunctional.Theapplied

artsarethusboundbythelawsofphysics,whichpertaintoboththematerialsusedintheirmakingandthesubstancesand

thingstobecontained,supported,andsheltered.Theselawsareuniversalintheirapplication,regardlessofculturalbeliefs,

geography,orclimate.Ifapothasnobottomorhaslargeopeningsinitssides,itcouldhardlybeconsideredacontainerinany

traditionalsense.Sincethelawsofphysics,notsomearbitrarydecision,havedeterminedthegeneralformofapplied?artobjects,

theyfollowbasicpatterns,somuchsothatfunctionalformscanvaryonlywithincertainlimits.Buildingswithoutroofs,for

example,areunusualbecausetheydepartfromthenorm.However,notallfunctionalobjectsareexactlyalike;thatiswhywe

recognizeaShangDynastyvaseasbeingdifferentfromanIncavase.Whatvariesisnotthebasicformbuttheincidental

detailsthatdonotobstructtheobject'sprimaryfunction.

1.Theword’they''inthepassagerefersto

oapplied-artobjects

othelawsofphysics

ocontainers

othesidesofpots

2.Whichofthefollowingbestexpressestheessentialinformationinthehighlightedsentence?Incorrectanswerchoices

changethemeaninginimportantwaysorleaveoutessentialinformation.

oFunctionalapplied-artobjectscannotvarymuchfromthebasicpatternsdeterminedbythelawsofphysics.

oThefunctionofapplied-artobjectsisdeterminedbybasicpatternsinthelawsofphysics.

oSincefunctionalapplied-artobjectsvaryonlywithincertainlimits,arbitrarydecisionscannothavedeterminedtheir

generalform.

oThegeneralfbnnofapplied-artobjectsislimitedbysomearbitrarydecisionthatisnotdeterminedbythelawsof

physics.

Paragraph2:Sensitivitytophysicallawsisthusanimportantconsiderationforthemakerofapplied-artobjects.Itisoften

takenforgrantedthatthisisalsotrueforthemakeroffine-artobjects.Thisassumptionmissesasignificantdifferencebetween

thetwodisciplines.Fine-artobjectsarenotconstrainedbythelawsofphysicsinthesamewaythatapplied-artobjectsare.

Becausetheirprimarypurposeisnotfunctional,theyareonlylimitedintermsofthematerialsusedtomakethem.Sculptures

must,forexample,bestable,whichrequiresanunderstandingofthepropertiesofmass,weightdistribution,andstress.

Paintingsmusthaverigidstretcherssothatthecanvaswillbetaut,andthepaintmustnotdeteriorate,crack,ordiscolor.These

areproblemsthatmustbeovercomebytheartistbecausetheytendtointrudeuponhisorherconceptionofthework.For

example,intheearlyItalianRenaissance,bronzestatuesofhorseswitharaisedforelegusuallyhadacannonballunderthat

hoof.Thiswasdonebecausethecannonballwasneededtosupporttheweightoftheleg.Inotherwords,thedemandsofthe

lawsofphysics,notthesculptofsaestheticintentions,placedtheballthere.Thatthisdevicewasanecessarystructural

compromiseisclearfromthefactthatthecannonballquicklydisappearedwhensculptorslearnedhowtostrengthentheinternal

structureofastatuewithironbraces(ironbeingmuchstrongerthanbronze).

3.Accordingtoparagraph2,sculptorsintheItalianRenaissancestoppedusingcannonballsinbronzestatuesofhorses

because

otheybeganusingamaterialthatmadethestatuesweighless

otheyfoundawaytostrengthenthestatuesinternally

otheaesthetictastesofthepublichadchangedovertime

othecannonballsaddedtoomuchweighttothestatues

4.WhydoestheauthordiscussthebronzestatuesofhorsescreatedbyartistsintheearlyItalianRenaissance?

0T0provideanexampleofaproblemrelatedtothelawsofphysicsthatafineartistmustovercome

0T0arguethatfineartistsareunconcernedwiththelawsofphysics

0T0contrasttherelativesophisticationofmodemartistsinsolvingproblemsrelatedtothelawsofphysics

0T0noteanexceptionalpieceofartconstructedwithouttheaidoftechnology

5.Anintroductorysentenceforabriefsummaryofthepassageisprovidedbelow.Completethesummarybyselectingthe

THREEanswerchoicesthatexpressthemostimportantideasinthepassage.Somesentencesdonotbelonginthesummary

becausetheyexpressideasthatarenotpresentedinthepassageorareminorideasinthepassage.Thisquestionisworth2

points.

Thispassagediscussesfundamentaldifferencesbetweenapplied-artobjectsandfine-artobjects.

AnswerChoices

oApplied-artobjectsfulfillfunctions,suchascontainingorsheltering,andobjectswiththesamefunctionhavesimilar

characteristicsbecausetheyareconstrainedbytheirpurpose.

oltiseasytorecognizethatShangDynastyvasesaredifferentfromIncavases.

oFine-artobjectsarenotfunctional,sotheyarelimitedonlybythepropertiesofthematerialsused.

oRenaissancesculptorslearnedtouseironbracestostrengthentheinternalstructuresofbronzestatues.

olnthetwentiethcentury,fineartistsandappliedartistsbecamemoresimilartooneanotherintheirattitudestowardtheir

materials.

olnallperiods,fineartiststendtochallengethephysicallimitationsoftheirmaterialswhileappliedartiststendtocooperate

withthephysicalpropertiesoftheirmaterials.

6.Directions:Completethetablebelowtosummarizeinformationaboutthetwotypesofartdiscussedinthepassage.

Matchtheappropriatestatementstothetypesofartwithwhichtheyareassociated.Thisquestionisworth3points.

TYPESOFARTSTATEMENTS

TheAppliedArtsTheFineArts

??

?■

■

Statements

oAnobjecfspurposeisprimarilyaesthetic.

oObjectsserveafunctionalpurpose.

oTheincidentaldetailsofobjectsdonotvary.

oArtistsworktoovercomethelimitationsoftheirmaterials.

oThebasicformofobjectsvarieslittleacrosscultures.

oArtistsworkinconcertwiththeirmaterials.

oAnobject'splaceoforiginisdifficulttodetermine.

參考答案：

1.01

Thisisanexampleofasimplepronoun-referentitem.Thehighlightedwordtheyreferstothephrase"applied-artobjects,

whichimmediatelyprecedesit,sochoice1isthecorrectanswer.Oftenthegrammaticalreferentforapronounwillbe

separatedfromthepronoun.Itmaybelocatedinaprecedingclauseorevenintheprecedingsentence.

2.ol

Itisimportanttonotethatthequestionsaysthatincorrectanswerschangetheoriginalmeaningofthesentenceorleave

outessentialinformation.Inthisexample,choice4changesthemeaningofthesentencetoitsopposite;itsaysthattheformof

functionalobjectsisarbitrary,whenthehighlightedsentencesaysthattheformsoffunctionalobjectsareneverarbitrary.

Choice2alsochangesthemeaning.Itsaysthatthefunctionsofapplied-artobjectsaredeterminedbyphysicallaws.The

highlightedsentencesaysthattheformoftheobjectisdeterminedbyphysicallawsbutthefunctionisdeterminedbypeople.

Choice3leavesoutanimportantideafromthehighlightedsentence.Likethehighlightedsentence,itsaysthattheformof

functionalobjectsisnotarbitrary,butitdoesnotsaythatitisphysicallawsthatdeterminebasicform.Onlychoice1makesthe

samepointasthehighlightedsentenceandincludesalltheessentialmeaning.

3.o2

Thequestiontellsyoutolookfortheanswerinparagraph2.Youdonotneedtoskimtheentirepassagetofindthe

relevantinformation.Choice1saysthatsculptorsstoppedputtingcannonballsundertheraisedlegsofhorsesinstatuesbecause

theylearnedhowmakethestatueweighlessandnotrequiresupportfortheleg.Thepassagedoesnotmentionmakingthe

statuesweighless;itsaysthatsculptorslearnedabetterwaytosupporttheweight.Choice3saysthatthechangeoccurredonly

becausepeople'stastechanged,meaningthatthecannonballswereneverstructurallynecessary.Thatdirectlycontradictsthe

passage.Choice4saysthatthecannonballsweakenedthestructureofthestatues.Thischoicealsocontradictsthepassage.

Choice2correctlyidentifiesthereasonthepassagegivesforthechange:sculptorsdevelopedawaytostrengthenthestatue

fromtheinside,makingthecannonballsphysicallyunnecessary.

4.ol

Youshouldnotethatthesentencethatfirstmentions“bronzestatuesofhorses^^begins“Forexample...”Theauthoris

givinganexampleofsomethinghehasintroducedearlierintheparagraph.Theparagraphoverallcontrastshowtheconstraints

ofphysicallawsaffectthefineartsdifferentlyfromappliedartsorcrafts.Thefineartistisnotconcernedwithmakinganobject

thatisuseful,soheorsheislessconstrainedthantheappliedartist.However,becauseevenafine-artsobjectismadeofsome

material,theartistmusttakeintoaccountthephysicalpropertiesofthematerial.Inthepassage,theauthorusestheexampleof

thebronzestatuesofhorsestodiscusshowartistshadtoincludesomesupportfortheraisedforelegofthehorsebecauseofthe

physicalpropertiesofthebronze.Sothecorrectanswerischoice1.

5.ol,3,6

CorrectChoices

Choice1:Appliedartobjectsfulfillfunctions,suchascontainingorsheltering,andobjectswiththesamefunctionhave

similarcharacteristicsbecausetheyareconstrainedbytheirpurpose.

Explanation:Astheintroductorysentencestates,thepassageismainlyacontrastofapplied-artobjectsandfine-artobjects.

Themainpointofcontrastisfunctionality:applied-artobjectsarefunctional,whereasfine-artobjectsarenot.Thefirstpartof

thepassageexplainstheconsequencesoffunctionalityforthematerialsand“basicforms“ofapplied-artobjects.Thesecond

partofthepassageexplainstheconsequencesofnotbeingfunctionaltothematerialsandformsoffine-artobjects.Agood

summaryofthepassagemustincludethedefinitionof<4applied-artobjects“andthemajorconsequence(objectswiththesame

functionwillfollowsimilarpatterns),soChoice1shouldbeincluded.

Choice3:Fine-artobjectsarenotfunctional,sotheyarelimitedonlybythepropertiesofthematerialsused.

Explanation:Becausethepassagecontrastsappliedartobjectsandfine-artobjects,agoodsummaryshouldincludethe

basicdifference.IncludingChoice3inthesummaryprovidesthebasiccontrastdiscussedinthepassage:appliedartobjectsare

functional;fine-artobjectsarenot,Fine-artobjectsarenotasconstrainedasapplied-artobjectsbecausetheydonothaveto

performafunction.

Choice6:Inallperiods,fineartiststendtochallengethephysicallimitationsoftheirmaterials,whileappliedartiststend

tocooperatewiththephysicalpropertiesoftheirmaterials.

Explanation:Thelastparagraphofthepassagepresentsafurtherconsequenceofthebasiccontrastbetweenapplied-art

objectsandfine-artobjects.Thisisthedifferencebetweentheattitudeoffineartiststowardtheirmaterialsandtheattitudeof

appliedartiststowardtheirmaterials.Agoodsummarywillincludethislastcontrast.

IncorrectChoices

Choice2:ItiseasytorecognizethatShangDynastyvasesaredifferentfromIncavases.

Explanation:Althoughthisstatementistrue,itisnotthemainpointofthefirstparagraphorofthepassage.Infact,it

contrastswiththemainpointoftheparagraph:objectsthathavethesamefunctionareallsimilar.Thelastsentenceofthefirst

paragraphsaysthattheShangDynastyvaseandtheIncavasearedifferentin''incidentaldetails,butthe“basicform“isthe

same.IncludingChoice2inthesummarymisrepresentsthepassage.

Choice4:Renaissancesculptorslearnedtouseironbracestostrengthentheinternal

structuresofbronzestatues.Explanation:Choice4summarizestheinformationinsentences9,10,and11ofparagraph2.

Withinthecontextofthepassage,thisinformationhelpsyouunderstandthemeaningofthelimitationsthatmaterialscan

imposeonfineartists.However,rememberthatthedirectionssaytochoosethestatementsthatexpressthemostimportant

ideasinthepassage.Theexampleislessimportantthanthegeneralstatementsofdifference.IfChoice4isincluded,then

Choice1or3or6wouldbeleftoutandthesummarywouldbemissinganessentialpointofcontrastbetweenfineartsand

appliedarts.

Choice5:Inthetwentiethcentury,fineartistsandappliedartistsbecamemoresimilartooneanotherintheirattitudes

towardtheirmaterials.Explanation:Thischoiceshouldbeexcludedbecauseitisnotsupportedbythepassage.Itisa

misreadingofparagraph3,whichsaysthatthedifferenceinattitudebetweenfineartistsandappliedartistshasnotchanged.

Obviously,achoicethatcontradictstheinformationorargumentinthepassageshouldnotbepartofyoursummary.

6.o2,5,6

ol,4

CorrectChoices

Choice1:Anobject^purposeisprimarilyaesthetic.(FineArts)

Explanation:Thisisanexampleofacorrectanswerthatrequiresyoutoidentifyanabstractconceptbasedontext

informationandparaphrasesoftextinformation.Inparagraph2,sentence5,thepassagestatesthattheprimarypurposeof

FineArtisnotfunction.Then,inparagraph2,sentence11,thepassagementionsasituationinwhichasculptorhadto

sacrificeanaestheticpurposeduetothelawsofphysics.Puttingthesestatementstogether,thereadercaninferthatfine

artists,suchassculptors,areprimarilyconcernedwithaesthetics.

Choice2:Objectsserveafunctionalpurpose.(AppliedArts)

Explanation:Thisisstatedmoredirectlythanthepreviouscorrectanswer.Paragraph1,sentences1,2,and3makeitclear

howimportantfunctionisintheappliedarts.Atthesametime,paragraph2statesthatFineArtsarenotconcernedwith

function,sotheonlycorrectplaceforthisstatementisintheAppliedArtscategory.

Choice4:Artistsworktoovercomethelimitationsoftheirmaterials.(FineArts)Explanation:Thisisstatedexplicitlyin

thelastparagraphofthepassage.Inthatparagraph,itismadeclearthatthisappliesonlytopractitionersofthefinearts.

Choice5:Thebasicformofobjectsvarieslittleacrosscultures.(AppliedArts)Explanation:Inparagraph1,sentence5,

thepassagestatesthatcertainlawsofphysicsareuniversal.Theninsentence7,thatideaisfurtherdevelopedwiththe

statementthatfunctionalformscanvaryonlywithinlimits.Fromthesetwosentences,youcanconcludethatbecauseof

thelawsofphysicsandtheneedforfunctionality,thebasicformsofappliedartobjectswillvarylittleacrosscultures.

Choice6:Artistsworkinconcertwiththeirmaterials.(AppliedArts)

Explanation:Thisisstatedexplicitlyinthelastparagraphofthepassage.Inthatparagraph,itismadeclearthatthis

appliesonlytopractitionersoftheappliedarts.

IncorrectChoices

Choice3:Theincidentaldetailsofobjectsdonotvary.

Explanation:Thisideaisexplicitlyrefutedbythelastsentenceofparagraph1inreferencetotheappliedarts.That

sentence(referringonlytoappliedarts)statesthattheincidentaldetailsofsuchobjectsdovary,sothisanswercannotbe

placedintheappliedartscategory.Thissubjectisnotdiscussedatallinreferencetofineartobjects,soitcannotbe

correctlyplacedinthatcategoryeither.

Choice7:Anobject'splaceoforiginisdifficulttodetermine.

Explanation:Thisanswerchoiceisimplicitlyrefutedinreferencetoappliedartsinthenexttolastsentenceofparagraph1.

ThatsentencenotesthatbothShangDynastyandIncavasesareidentifiableassuchbasedupondifferencesindetail.By

inference,then,itseemsthatitisnotdifficulttodetermineanapplied-artobject'splaceoforigin.Liketheprevious

incorrectanswer,thisideaisnotdiscussedatallinreferencetofineartobjects,soitcannotbecorrectlyplacedinthat

categoryeither.

參考譯文：實用藝術(shù)和純藝術(shù)

在現(xiàn)代，人們將根據(jù)工藝品的制造材質(zhì)對他們進(jìn)行分類，如陶土，玻璃，木頭，纖維還有金屬。但最初人們根據(jù)

工藝品的功能將他們通通定義為“實用工藝品根據(jù)工藝品的實用性，我們可以把手工藝品簡單分為：容器，遮蔽物，

支撐物。毫無疑問它們都是具有一定功能的物品。這些實用工藝品以自然規(guī)律為基礎(chǔ)，它們的制作材料及其容納、支

撐、遮蓋的內(nèi)容需要符合這些規(guī)律。這些規(guī)律在工藝品應(yīng)用過程中非常普遍，不會因文化信仰、地理條件和氣候的改

變而改變。如果一個壺沒有底座，或者在一側(cè)有一個大開口，那么它在任何傳統(tǒng)意義上都很難被視為是一個容器。自

然規(guī)律決定了實用工藝品的一般形式，而不是武斷的結(jié)論決定的，它們遵循基本的樣式，以至于它們的功能不會變化

太大。舉個例子，沒有屋頂?shù)慕ㄖ呛苌僖姷?，因為它違反了自然規(guī)律。但是，并不是所有的功能物品都一模一樣，

比如我們知道的為什么商代花瓶和印加花瓶不同。它們的區(qū)別不是基本功能的不同，而是那些不影響其基本功能的細(xì)

節(jié)存在區(qū)別。

實用工藝品的生產(chǎn)者會著重考慮這件工藝品對自然規(guī)律的敏感性。所以人們認(rèn)為對純工藝品的生產(chǎn)來說也是一樣。

但這種推斷忽略了兩種工藝品之間重要的區(qū)別。純工藝品不像實用工藝品那樣會受到自然規(guī)律的限制。因為它們最主

要的并不是體現(xiàn)其功能性，其實它們僅受限于制作材料的性質(zhì)。比方說雕塑必須要牢固，這就需要了解質(zhì)量，重力分

布和壓力的性質(zhì)。油畫必須有堅固的支架，才能讓畫布保持繃緊，并且油畫不可以有毀損，裂紋，褪色。類似困難都

是藝術(shù)家們必須克服的，這些困擾往往影響了藝術(shù)家對于工藝品的設(shè)計。就好像在意大利文藝復(fù)興早期，踢出前腿馬

匹的青銅像往往有一個金屬球置于它的前蹄下。這樣設(shè)計是因為需要金屬球來支撐腿的重量。換而言之，擺在那里的

金屬球是客觀條件的需要，而不是藝術(shù)家的美學(xué)意愿。當(dāng)?shù)袼芗覍W(xué)會如何了用鐵支架加強(qiáng)雕塑的內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu)后（鐵比青

銅更結(jié)實），就不再使用金屬球了，由此看來，鐵球的使用是對于必要結(jié)構(gòu)性的妥協(xié)。

盡管在20世紀(jì)純工藝品的制作通常采用新的制造工藝，人們對兩種工藝品的基本態(tài)度仍然保持對立。因此，毫不

夸張地說，純藝術(shù)工藝品的生產(chǎn)者需要克服原材料的限制進(jìn)行生產(chǎn)，而從事實用性工藝品的生產(chǎn)者則依據(jù)材料的性質(zhì)

來進(jìn)行生產(chǎn)。

TheOriginsofCetaceans

Itshouldbeobviousthatcetaceans—whales,poipoises,anddolphins—aremammals.Theybreathethroughlungs,not

throughgills,andgivebirthtoliveyoung.Theirstreamlinedbodies,theabsenceofhindlegs,andthepresenceofafluke12and

blowhole-cannotdisguisetheiraffinitieswithlanddwellingmammals.However,unlikethecasesofseaottersandpinnipeds

(seals,sealions,andwalruses,whoselimbsarefunctionalbothonlandandatsea),itisnoteasytoenvisionwhatthefirst

whaleslookedlike.Extinctbutalreadyfullymarinecetaceansareknownfromthefossilrecord.Howwasthegapbetweena

walkingmammalandaswimmingwhalebridged?Missinguntilrecentlywerefossilsclearlyintermediate,ortransitional,

betweenlandmammalsandcetaceans.

Veryexcitingdiscoverieshavefinallyallowedscientiststoreconstructthemostlikelyoriginsofcetaceans.In1979,a

teamlookingforfossilsinnorthernPakistanfoundwhatprovedtobetheoldestfossilwhale.Thefossilwasofficiallynamed

Pakicetusinhonorofthecountrywherethediscoverywasmade.Pakicetuswasfoundembeddedinrocksformedfromriver

depositsthatwere52millionyearsold.Theriverthatformedthesedepositswasactuallynotfarfromanancientoceanknown

astheTethysSea.

Thefossilconsistsofacompleteskullofanarchaeocyte,anextinctgroupofancestorsofmoderncetaceans.Although

limitedtoaskull,thePakicetusfossilprovidespreciousdetailsontheoriginsofcetaceans.Theskulliscetacean-likebutits

jawboneslacktheenlargedspacethatisfilledwithfatoroilandusedforreceivingunderwatersoundinmodemwhales.

Pakicetusprobablydetectedsoundthroughtheearopeningasinlandmammals.Theskullalsolacksablowhole,another

cetaceanadaptationfordiving.Otherfeatures,however,showexpertsthatPakicetusisatransitionalformbetweenagroupof

extinctflesh-eatingmammals,themesonychids,andcetaceans.IthasbeensuggestedthatPakicetusfedonfishinshallow

waterandwasnotyetadaptedforlifeintheopenocean.Itprobablybredandgavebirthonland.

AnothermajordiscoverywasmadeinEgyptin1989.Severalskeletonsofanotherearlywhale,Basilosaurus,werefound

insedimentsleftbytheTethysSeaandnowexposedintheSaharadesert.Thiswhalelivedaround40millionyearsago,12

millionyearsafterPakicetus.Manyincompleteskeletonswerefoundbuttheyincluded,forthefirsttimeinanarchaeocyte,a

completehindlegthatfeaturesafootwiththreetinytoes.Suchlegswouldhavebeenfartoosmalltohavesupportedthe

50-foot-longBasilosaurusonland.Basilosauruswasundoubtedlyafullymarinewhalewithpossiblynonfunctional,or

vestigial,hindlegs.

Anevenmoreexcitingfindwasreportedin1994,alsofromPakistan.ThenowextinctwhaleAmhulocetusnatans("the

walkingwhalethatswam")livedintheTethysSea49millionyearsago.Itlivedaround3millionyearsafterPakicetusbut9

millionbeforeBasilosaurus.Thefossilluckilyincludesagoodportionofthehindlegs.Thelegswerestrongandendedinlong

feetverymuchlikethoseofamodempinniped.Thelegswerecertainlyfunctionalbothonlandandatsea.Thewhaleretained

atailandlackedafluke,themajormeansoflocomotioninmodemcetaceans.Thestructureofthebackboneshows,however,

thatAmbulocetusswamlikemodernwhalesbymovi