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如何做定性研究QualitativeresearchQualitativeResearch
13thofMarchQualitativeResearch“Youcanlearnalotjustbywatching”MAKINGSENSEOFOTHERS’REALITYTHEINTERPRETIVEPARADIGMTheinterpretiveapproacharguesthatresearchshouldexplore“…sociallymeaningfulactionthroughthedirectdetailedobservationofpeopleinnaturalsettingsinordertoarriveatunderstandingsandinterpretationsofhowpeoplecreateandmaintaintheirsocialworlds”(Neuman,1997:68).Weuse“…methodsthattrytodescribeandinterpretpeople’sfeelingsandexperiencesinhumantermsratherthanthroughquantificationandmeasurement”(TerreBlanche&Kelly,1999:123).WhattoObserveorStudyBehaviorsorpracticesEpisodes,commonevents(death,birth,etc.)Encounters–whengroupsorpeopleinteractRolesRelationshiproles–mother/daughter;wife/husband,Therapist/disabled,…etc.QualitativeResearchGoalsMeaning:howpeopleseetheworldContext:theworldinwhichpeopleactProcess:whatactionsandactivitiespeopledoReasoning:whypeopleactandbehavethewaytheydoMaxwell,2005PhasesinQualitativeResearch
Conceptualizeandplanstudy
Useliterature,formulatestudypurposeorquestion,identifystudysite,settingswhere/howdatacollectionwilloccur,participantsandentréetosettingStartstudywithconcurrentdatacollectionandanalysis.Analysisfocusedonidentifyingthemesandcategories--similaritiesindata.Questionorpurposemayemergeandberefined.DatacollectionstrategiesmaychangeSlinganddatacollectiondeterminedbytheoreticalsaturation.AnalysisbasedonnarrativedescriptionGoal:Accesstheparticipantsworld&meanings.ResearcheristheinstrumentSelectingparticipants...ThegoalistogetthedeepestpossibleunderstandingofthesettingbeingstudiedRequiresidentifyingparticipantswhocanprovideinformationabouttheparticulartopicandsettingbeingstudiedSelectingparticipants...ItisfraughtwithdifficultiesinidentifyingandselectinganappropriatenumberofparticipantswhocanprovideusefulinformationabouttheparticulartopicandsettingbeingstudiedUtilizespurposiveslingRandom“Quantitative”SlingSelectRepresentativeindividuals Togeneralizefromsletopopulation Tomakeclaimsaboutthepopulation Tobuild/test“theories”thatexplainthepop’nPurposeful“Qualitative”Sling
Selectpeople/siteswhocanbesthelpus understandourphenomenon
Todevelopdetailedunderstanding
Thatmightbe“useful:information Thatmighthelppeople“l(fā)earn”aboutthephenomenon Thatmightgivevoiceto“silenced”peopleDifferencesBetweenRandom&PurposefulSlingSlesizeisalwaysdeterminedbytheanalysis.Itispartofthedesignandsoisinfluencedbythenatureoftheinquiry,qualityoftheinformants,thequalityofthedata.
Theresearcherislookingforsaturation—thepointatwhichthereisnonewcasescomingfromeachnewparticipantandredundantinformationkeepscomingup.
Thismustbedifferentiatedfromparticipantsaturationwheretheresearchercannotdraganythingnewoutoftheumpteenthinterviewwiththatparticularperson.
SlinginQualitativeStudiesPurposiveslingPurposiveslinggroupsparticipantsaccordingtopre-selectedcriteriarelevanttoaparticularresearchquestion.ex.VietnamesebusinessmenintheUSASlesizesdependon:ResourcesandtimeavailableThestudy’sobjectivesIftheresearcherneedsaspecificnumberofparticipants,quotaslingisbetter.13QuotaslingQuotaslingbeginswithtwodecisions:Whatcharacteristics?Howmanypeople?Characteristicsareselectedinordertofindparticipantswhohaveexperiencewithorknowledgeoftheresearchtopic.Theresearchergoesintothecommunityandselectsthepredeterminednumberofpeopledemonstratingthepre-selectedcharacteristics.14SnowballslingSnowballslingisaformofpurposivesling.Participantsrefertheresearchertootherpotentialparticipants.Snowballslingisoftenusedtofindandrecruit“hiddenpopulations”–groupsnoteasilyaccessibletoresearchers.15TypesofDataCollection
(or“fieldwork”)ObservationInterviewingFocusGroupsDocumentAnalysisDoingtheInterviewIntroductionandBuildingRapport
explainpurposeagainverbalconfidentialityassurance(andgooverform)norightorwronganswers…o.k.toaskquestionsandclarifyaskpermissiontorecordYourQuestions
Ifflexibleformat…listofthingstobesuretotalkaboutTogetrichdata:PROBEANDFOLLOW
YouandtheInterview:attending,listening,thinking,takingnotes,taping
notetaking–clarifysomething;tokeepyoufocusedsilenceandpatience–balancedwithkeepingtheinterviewgoingredirectlong-windedtangentsbacktoyourlineoffocusAftertheInterview:WritinguptheInterviewand…SummaryandnotesofmainpointsVerbatimtranscripts(don’tletthempileup)Ideas–tentativepiecesofanalysisMethodologicaldifficultiesPersonalemotionalexperienceRespondingtointervieweerequests;emotionalissues?TheThree-InterviewSeries
(Seidman,1998)InterviewOne:LifeHistoryInterviewTwo:DetailsoftheExperienceInterviewThree:ReflectionontheMeaningDataCollectionMethods:
In-depthInterviewsSomestudiescannotemploytheparticipantobservationmethodE.g.,Desroches’sstudyofbankrobbersIn-depthinterviewsallowparticipantstodescribetheirexperiencesandthemeaningofeventstakingplaceintheirlivesVerbatimquotescapturethelanguageandmeaningexpressedbyparticipantsInterviewsareflexibleandallowforprobingInterviewmethodisquitediverse,adaptiveIn-depthInterviews(cont’d)Spradley–threekeyelementsfortheinterviewmethodtobesuccessfulExplicitpurpose–researcherandinformantareawarethatthediscussionhasapurposeEthnographicexplanations–researchertriesoutexplanationsontheparticipantstoseeiftheymakesenseEncouragetheinformantstousecolloquiallanguage,andteachtheresearcheritsmeaningIn-depthInterviews(cont’d)Ethnographicquestionsinclude:Descriptivequestions–askparticipantstodescribetheirexperiences(e.g.,theirideas,circumstances,viewpoints,dilemmas,etc)Structuralquestions–askparticipantshowtheyorganizetheirworld(e.g.,activities)Contrastquestions–askparticipantswhatismeantbyspecificterminologyPrus&Grillsstressthevalueoftheinterviewmethodinamulti-methodapproachDataCollectionMethods:
FocusGroupInterviewsInterviewformat,butinagroupsetting6-12participantswithcommonexperienceDatesbacktothe1940s–usedtoassesseffectivenessofmorale-boostingradioshows1970sonward–usedbymarketresearchers1980sonward–usedbyacademicsTranscriptofdiscussionisthedataPlusaccompanyingnotesUsecontentanalysisorgroundedtheoryapproachtoanalyzethedataFocusGroupInterviews(cont’d)Strengths:Open-endedquestionSpontaneouslydealwithissuesastheyariseCost-effectivemethodofcollectingdataLesstime-consumingWeaknesses:OneortwoparticipantsmaydominateNotdoneinanaturalsetting,solittle“observation”tohelpunderstandtheexperienceoftheparticipantsTelephoneInterviewsAdvantages:Comboofface-to-facepersonalqualitywithimpersonalself-administeredquestionnairesInexpensiveandconvenient(maybe)SafeforinterviewersTelephoneInterviews,cont.Disadvantages:Changingdemographics–morecellphones?MaymisscertainpopulationsegmentsSurveymustbeshortorpeoplewillhangup“NoCallLists”presentingincreasingchallengeMethodtoenhancethevalidity&reliabilityofqualitativeresearchEnhancesaccuracyofinterpretationConfirmsthatthedatacollectedisnotduetochanceorcircum-stancesQualitativeResearchMethods:
TriangulationCollectdatafrommultiplesourcesCollectdatainmultiplewaysfromsubjectsCollectdifferentkindsofdatainmultiplewaysfrommultiplesubjectsForexle:Mayinterviewteachers,principals&parentsMayinterview&observestudentsMayreviewstudentrecords,interviewteachers,observestudentsQualitativeResearchMethods:
TriangulationMultipledatasourcesMultiplekindsofdataMultipledatacollectionstrategiesSubjects(datasources)DatacollectionstrategiesKindsofdataQualitativeResearchMethods:
TriangulationMixingMethods/Qual-quantThreepurposes(Sandelowski):Triangulation–convergentvalidationComplementarity–clarify,explain,elaborateDevelopment–guideadditionaldatacollectionResources
(Kuh&Andreas,1991)
RecordingdevicesTranscribingequipmentSof
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