高級英語第二冊第四課相關(guān)邏輯知識(共22頁)

1、精選優(yōu)質(zhì)文檔-傾情為你奉上了解基本邏輯，避免常見錯誤 要了解基本邏輯錯誤一定不能錯過一篇英文小品文Love Is A Fallacy (作者Max Shulman)，這里僅列舉出十種最常見的邏輯錯誤。 1.草率前提 (Dicto Simpliciter) 例如：Women are on average not as strong as men and less able to perform well politically. Therefore, women can't pull their weight in government work. 點評：雖

2、然女性確實在政界擔(dān)任較少工作，但這不意味著女性群體中所有的人都是這樣。 2.過度概化 (Hasty Generalization) 例如：McDonald's and KFC offer foods with little nutrition, and thus we cannot expect any fast food restaurant to provide us with nutritious foods. 點評：兩個個例不足以推出一個真理。 3.因果顛倒 (Post Hoc) 例如：Most young criminals

3、watch violent movies before they commit their crimes; obviously, violent movies lead to juvenile delinquency. 點評：甲事情發(fā)生在乙事情之前，這并不代表著先發(fā)生的甲事情就是后發(fā)生的乙事情的原因。 4.矛盾前提 (Contradictory Premises) 例如：If God can do everything, can he make a stone so heavy that he can't carry? 點評：前提條件中就有相互矛

4、盾的地方，結(jié)論當(dāng)然是錯誤的。 5.感性論證 (Ad Misericordiam) 例如：Think of all the poor, starving African children! How could rich countries be so cruel as not to help them? 點評：抒情是不能當(dāng)作論證的。 6.錯誤類比 (False Analogy) 例如：Young children are like flowers-flowers should stay away from terrible weather to

5、grow, so children need to get rid of everything negative. 點評：孩子和花朵的區(qū)別太大。成長的過程也太復(fù)雜。最好不要用這兩者來類比。 7.虛假假設(shè) (Hypothesis Contrary to Fact) 例如：If TV were not invented, today people would never have such wonderful entertainment brought by TV. 點評：因為電視已經(jīng)被發(fā)明了，對于過去的否定假設(shè)后所得出的結(jié)論都是邏輯上的錯誤結(jié)論。 

6、;8.無關(guān)轉(zhuǎn)移 (Red Herring) 例如：Many people say we need to exploit the outer space, a point which I believe is wrong, because there are so many poor people on Earth who hardly make ends meet. 點評：有一個問題沒解決并不代表著另一個問題不值得解決。 9.從眾錯誤 (Bandwagon) 例如：Everyone says it is justified to learn a seco

7、nd language so we must learn one. 點評：人人都說，或者大多數(shù)都說，這并不意味著該觀點正確。 10.滑坡謬誤 (Slippery slope) 例如：If we don't care about the environment, the world will die in 50 years. 點評：從環(huán)境問題到世界滅亡，中間有無數(shù)環(huán)節(jié)未提供論證。 Examples of Slippery Slope1. "We have to stop the tuition increase! The nex

8、t thing you know, they'll be charging $40,000 a semester!"2. "The US shouldn't get involved militarily in other countries. Once the government sends in a few troops, it will then send in thousands to die."3. "You can never give anyone a break. If you do, they'll walk

9、all over you."4. "We've got to stop them from banning pornography. Once they start banning one form of literature, they will never stop. Next thing you know, they will be burning all the books!"11. appeal to emotionYou attempted to manipulate an emotional response in place of a va

10、lid or compelling argument.Appeals to emotion include appeals to fear, envy, hatred, pity, pride, and more. It's important to note that sometimes a logically coherent argument may inspire emotion or have an emotional aspect, but the problem and fallacy occurs when emotion is used instead of a lo

11、gical argument, or to obscure the fact that no compelling rational reason exists for one's position. Everyone, bar sociopaths, is affected by emotion, and so appeals to emotion are a very common and effective argument tactic, but they're ultimately flawed, dishonest, and tend to make one'

12、;s opponents justifiably emotional.Example: Luke didn't want to eat his sheep's brains with chopped liver and brussel sprouts, but his father told him to think about the poor, starving children in a third world country who weren't fortunate enough to have any food at all.12 . ad hom

13、inem ,personal attack 人身攻擊You attacked your opponent's character or personal traits in an attempt to undermine their argument.Ad hominem attacks can take the form of overtly attacking somebody, or more subtly casting doubt on their character or personal attributes as a way to discredit their arg

14、ument. The result of an ad hom attack can be to undermine someone's case without actually having to engage with it.Example: After Sally presents an eloquent and compelling case for a more equitable taxation system, Sam asks the audience whether we should believe anything from a woman who is

15、n't married, was once arrested, and smells a bit weird.第七條：訴諸虛偽13. loaded question 含沙射影You asked a question that had a presumption built into it so that it couldn't be answered without appearing guilty.Loaded question fallacies are particularly effective at derailing rational debates because

16、 of their inflammatory nature - the recipient of the loaded question is compelled to defend themselves and may appear flustered or on the back foot.Example: Grace and Helen were both romantically interested in Brad. One day, with Brad sitting within earshot, Grace asked in an inquisitive tone w

17、hether Helen was having any problems with a drug habit.14 . appeal to authority訴諸權(quán)威You said that because an authority thinks something, it must therefore be true.It's important to note that this fallacy should not be used to dismiss the claims of experts, or scientific consensus. Appeals to auth

18、ority are not valid arguments, but nor is it reasonable to disregard the claims of experts who have a demonstrated depth of knowledge unless one has a similar level of understanding and/or access to empirical evidence. However it is, entirely possible that the opinion of a person or institution of a

19、uthority is wrong; therefore the authority that such a person or institution holds does not have any intrinsic bearing upon whether their claims are true or not.Example: Not able to defend his position that evolution 'isn't true' Bob says that he knows a scientist who also questions

20、 evolution (and presumably isn't a primate).15 竊取論點. begging the questionYou presented a circular argument in which the conclusion was included in the premise.This logically incoherent argument often arises in situations where people have an assumption that is very ingrained, and therefore taken

21、 in their minds as a given. Circular reasoning is bad mostly because it's not very good.Example: The word of Zorbo the Great is flawless and perfect. We know this because it says so in The Great and Infallible Book of Zorbo's Best and Most Truest Things that are Definitely True and Shou

22、ld Not Ever Be Questioned.第一條：稻草人1. strawman/straw manYou misrepresented someone's argument to make it easier to attack.By exaggerating, misrepresenting, or just completely fabricating someone's argument, it's much easier to present your own position as being reasonable, but this kind of

23、 dishonesty serves to undermine honest rational debate.Example: After Will said that we should put more money into health and education, Warren responded by saying that he was surprised that Will hates our country so much that he wants to leave it defenceless by cutting military spending.第二條：錯誤

24、歸因2. false causeYou presumed that a real or perceived relationship between things means that one is the cause of the other.Many people confuse correlation (things happening together or in sequence) for causation (that one thing actually causes the other to happen). Sometimes correlation is coinciden

25、tal, or it may be attributable to a common cause.Example: Pointing to a fancy chart, Roger shows how temperatures have been rising over the past few centuries, whilst at the same time the numbers of pirates have been decreasing; thus pirates cool the world and global warming is a hoax.第三條：訴諸感情3

26、. appeal to emotionYou attempted to manipulate an emotional response in place of a valid or compelling argument.Appeals to emotion include appeals to fear, envy, hatred, pity, pride, and more. It's important to note that sometimes a logically coherent argument may inspire emotion or have an emot

27、ional aspect, but the problem and fallacy occurs when emotion is used instead of a logical argument, or to obscure the fact that no compelling rational reason exists for one's position. Everyone, bar sociopaths, is affected by emotion, and so appeals to emotion are a very common and effective ar

28、gument tactic, but they're ultimately flawed, dishonest, and tend to make one's opponents justifiably emotional.Example: Luke didn't want to eat his sheep's brains with chopped liver and brussel sprouts, but his father told him to think about the poor, starving children in a thi

29、rd world country who weren't fortunate enough to have any food at all.第四條：謬誤謬誤4. the fallacy fallacyYou presumed that because a claim has been poorly argued, or a fallacy has been made, that the claim itself must be wrong.It is entirely possible to make a claim that is false yet argue with logic

30、al coherency for that claim, just as is possible to make a claim that is true and justify it with various fallacies and poor arguments.Example: Recognising that Amanda had committed a fallacy in arguing that we should eat healthy food because a nutritionist said it was popular, Alyse said we sh

31、ould therefore eat bacon double cheeseburgers every day.第五條：滑坡謬誤5. slippery slopeYou said that if we allow A to happen, then Z will eventually happen too, therefore A should not happen.The problem with this reasoning is that it avoids engaging with the issue at hand, and instead shifts attention to

32、extreme hypotheticals. Because no proof is presented to show that such extreme hypotheticals will in fact occur, this fallacy has the form of an appeal to emotion fallacy by leveraging fear. In effect the argument at hand is unfairly tainted by unsubstantiated conjecture.Example: Colin Closet a

33、sserts that if we allow same-sex couples to marry, then the next thing we know we'll be allowing people to marry their parents, their cars and even monkeys.第六條：人身攻擊 6. ad hominem ,personal attackYou attacked your opponent's character or personal traits in an attempt to undermine their argume

34、nt.Ad hominem attacks can take the form of overtly attacking somebody, or more subtly casting doubt on their character or personal attributes as a way to discredit their argument. The result of an ad hom attack can be to undermine someone's case without actually having to engage with it.Example:

35、 After Sally presents an eloquent and compelling case for a more equitable taxation system, Sam asks the audience whether we should believe anything from a woman who isn't married, was once arrested, and smells a bit weird7. tuquoque(appeal to hypocrisy)You avoided having to engage with cri

36、ticism by turning it back on the accuser - you answered criticism with criticism.Pronounced too-kwo-kwee. Literally translating as 'you too' this fallacy is also known as the appeal to hypocrisy. It is commonly employed as an effective red herring because it takes the heat off someone having

37、 to defend their argument, and instead shifts the focus back on to the person making the criticism.Example: Nicole identified that Hannah had committed a logical fallacy, but instead of addressing the substance of her claim, Hannah accused Nicole of committing a fallacy earlier on in the conver

38、sation.第八條：個人懷疑8. personal incredulityBecause you found something difficult to understand, or are unaware of how it works, you made out like it's probably not true.Complex subjects like biological evolution through natural selection require some amount of understanding before one is able to make

39、 an informed judgement about the subject at hand; this fallacy is usually used in place of that understanding.Example: Kirk drew a picture of a fish and a human and with effusive disdain asked Richard if he really thought we were stupid enough to believe that a fish somehow turned into a human

40、through just, like, random things happening over time.第九條：片面謬誤9. special pleadingYou moved the goalposts or made up an exception when your claim was shown to be false.Humans are funny creatures and have a foolish aversion to being wrong. Rather than appreciate the benefits of being able to change on

41、e's mind through better understanding, many will invent ways to cling to old beliefs. One of the most common ways that people do this is to post-rationalize a reason why what they thought to be true must remain to be true. It's usually very easy to find a reason to believe something that sui

42、ts us, and it requires integrity and genuine honesty with oneself to examine one's own beliefs and motivations without falling into the trap of justifying our existing ways of seeing ourselves and the world around us.Example: Edward Johns claimed to be psychic, but when his 'abilities&#

43、39; were tested under proper scientific conditions, they magically disappeared. Edward explained this saying that one had to have faith in his abilities for them to work.第十條：誘導(dǎo)性問題 complex questions 10. loaded question You asked a question that had a presumption built into it so that it couldn't

44、be answered without appearing guilty.Loaded question fallacies are particularly effective at derailing rational debates because of their inflammatory nature - the recipient of the loaded question is compelled to defend themselves and may appear flustered or on the back foot.Example: Grace and H

45、elen were both romantically interested in Brad. One day, with Brad sitting within earshot, Grace asked in an inquisitive tone whether Helen was having any problems with a drug habit.第十一條：舉證責(zé)任11. burden of proofYou said that the burden of proof lies not with the person making the claim, but with some

46、one else to disprove.The burden of proof lies with someone who is making a claim, and is not upon anyone else to disprove. The inability, or disinclination, to disprove a claim does not render that claim valid, nor give it any credence whatsoever. However it is important to note that we can never be

47、 certain of anything, and so we must assign value to any claim based on the available evidence, and to dismiss something on the basis that it hasn't been proven beyond all doubt is also fallacious reasoning.Example: Bertrand declares that a teapot is, at this very moment, in orbit around th

48、e Sun between the Earth and Mars, and that because no one can prove him wrong, his claim is therefore a valid one.第十二條：語義模糊12. ambiguityYou used a double meaning or ambiguity of language to mislead or misrepresent the truth.Politicians are often guilty of using ambiguity to mislead and will later po

49、int to how they were technically not outright lying if they come under scrutiny. The reason that it qualifies as a fallacy is that it is intrinsically misleading.Example: When the judge asked the defendant why he hadn't paid his parking fines, he said that he shouldn't have to pay them

50、because the sign said 'Fine for parking here' and so he naturally presumed that it would be fine to park there.第十三條：賭徒謬誤13. the gambler's fallacyYou said that 'runs' occur to statistically independent phenomena such as roulette wheel spins.This commonly believed fallacy can be sa

51、id to have helped create an entire city in the desert of Nevada USA. Though the overall odds of a 'big run' happening may be low, each spin of the wheel is itself entirely independent from the last. So whilst there may be a very small chance that heads will come up 20 times in a row if you f

52、lip a coin, the chances of heads coming up on each individual flip remain 50/50, and aren't influenced by what happened before.Example: Red had come up six times in a row on the roulette wheel, so Greg knew that it was close to certain that black would be next up. Suffering an economic form

53、 of natural selection with this thinking, he soon lost all of his savings.第十四條：樂隊花車14. bandwagonYou appealed to popularity or the fact that many people do something as an attempted form of validation.The flaw in this argument is that the popularity of an idea has absolutely no bearing on its validit

54、y.If it did, then the Earth would have made itself flat for most of history to accommodate this popular belief.Example: Shamus pointed a drunken finger at Sean and asked him to explain how so many people could believe in leprechauns if they're only a silly old superstition. Sean, however, h

55、ad had a few too many Guinness himself and fell off his chair.第十五條：訴諸權(quán)威15. appeal to authorityYou said that because an authority thinks something, it must therefore be true.It's important to note that this fallacy should not be used to dismiss the claims of experts, or scientific consensus. Appe

56、als to authority are not valid arguments, but nor is it reasonable to disregard the claims of experts who have a demonstrated depth of knowledge unless one has a similar level of understanding and/or access to empirical evidence. However it is, entirely possible that the opinion of a person or insti

57、tution of authority is wrong; therefore the authority that such a person or institution holds does not have any intrinsic bearing upon whether their claims are true or not.Example: Not able to defend his position that evolution 'isn't true' Bob says that he knows a scientist who als

58、o questions evolution (and presumably isn't a primate).第十六條：合成謬誤16. composition/division 合成謬誤You assumed that one part of something has to be applied to all, or other, parts of it; or that the whole must apply to its parts.Often when something is true for the part it does also apply to the whole

59、, or vice versa, but the crucial difference is whether there exists good evidence to show that this is the case. Because we observe consistencies in things, our thinking can become biased so that we presume consistency to exist where it does not.Example: Daniel was a precocious child and had a

60、liking for logic. He reasoned that atoms are invisible, and that he was made of atoms and therefore invisible too. Unfortunately, despite his thinky skills, he lost the game of hide and go seek.第十七條：沒有真正的蘇格蘭人17. no true scotsmanYou made what could be called an appeal to purity as a way to dismiss relevant criticisms or flaws of your argument.In this form of faulty reasoning one's belief is rendered unfalsifiable because no matter how compelling the evidence is, one simply shifts the goalposts so that it wouldn't apply to a supposedly 'true' example. This