Culture perspectives文化視角說明

1、Culture perspectivesOur cultures determine the way we perceive ourselves and the way we perceive the world around us. Culture determines our view of how the world works, our beliefs about god, human nature, good and evil, humanitys relationship to nature, and many other important issues. Each cultur

2、e believes that its views about the world are the correct views, and that other cultures holding conflicting views are wrong. When cultures hold different world views, it can be difficult for members of those cultures to communicate with one another. However, as members of the world, we do not have

3、to agree with the views the others have, but we do have to understand and respect the world view that leads members of that culture to have the beliefs and to behave as they do.Il nest pas proper? My French sister-in-laws question floated in the air. I pretended not to hear, waiting for my wife to a

4、nswer. She was asking about our two-and-a-half-year-old son, who had just scampered by her, chasing a ball on the beach in Normandy. I wasnt exactly sure what she was asking. He isnt clean? What could she mean by that? When my wife answered, it became clear. It was about the diaper he was wearing, a

5、nd the fact that he was not yet toilet trained. Wasnt he getting a little old for diapers? This conversation, and the implication that our American toilet training practices were somehow inadequate, bothered me. I knew there were cultural differences in play, but the only explanation I could come up

6、 with in the moment was a simplistic notion about informality, or different traditions. Truthfully, I was struck more by how bothered I was. My emotions were triggered, and I couldnt figure out why.Later, I came across a comparison of the differences between French and American child-rearing practic

7、es. The French perceive that humankind-all people-contains both good and evil, and that children therefore need the guiding hand of rational adults in order to prepare them to participate properly in society, to bring out the positive in them and to control their innate negative tendencies. Children

8、 must follow the rules, so to speak. Americans, in contrast, tend to view humankind as basically good, and are consequently more tolerant of children finding their own way, learning from mistakes, trusting them to do what is right.What helped me most in this comparison was the realization that the f

9、undamental differences in views between my sister-in-law and me could be explained in terms of cultural perspectives, that these were submerged deep within, and that it was not really a matter of right and wrong between the two of us. I question whether I could have come to this understanding by rel

10、ying on my own experience. I needed others views.Perspectives can be presented as a combination of perceptions, values, beliefs, and attitudes. They are the explicit and implicit meanings shared by members of the culture, manifested in products and practices. These meanings reflect members perceptio

11、ns of the world, the beliefs and values that they hold, and the norms, expectations, and attitudes that they bring to practices. To name the perspectives that underlie practices is to answer the question, “why do the people of this culture do things in the way they do?”Perspectives can be tangible.

12、Perceptions, beliefs, values, and attitudes can be explicitly stated in oral or written form. These explicit perspectives are expressed through sayings, proverbs, creeds, proclamations, myths, mottos, principles, guidelines, mission statements, scholarly studies, cultural studies, or other explicit

13、forms of expression. These overt perspectives, the shared public outlooks, guide our practices.As an example, consider the perspective of “the American dream”-a culture perspective that reflects a belief that anyone can achieve fame and fortune in the united states through hard work, self-reliance,

14、and sacrifice. This belief is based upon values of equality, individualism, achievement, competition, and materialism. These values, in turn, derive from a cultural perception that people possess free will and can control their destinies and the environment, and that the future is more important tha

15、n the past. Attitude of competitiveness, ambition, determination, self-centeredness, and resilience follow. Accordingly, U.S. culture has many practices that reflect the pursuit of the American dream, including establishing certain relationships, developing a career, and acquiring wealth, status, or

16、 respect. Products accumulate with such practices: possessions, goods, capital, status, and recognition.Many explicit perspectives are found in the history of a culture and in social and cultural studies and commentaries. The histories of political, economic, religious, educational and other formal

17、institutions both reflect and propagate cultural perspectives. For example, the belief that “every man is presumed innocent until proven guilty” pervades the judicial system in the united states, and has its origins in the American revolution as a conscious response to the political institutions in

18、Europe. Likewise, U.S. history books are filled with stories of “self-made men,” “rugged individualists” who “pulled themselves up by their own bootstraps”, “l(fā)eft their pasts behind”, and went from “rags to riches” to attain the American dream,” proving”, in effect, that “god helps those who help th

19、emselves.” (Depending on the American you talk to, this perspective may be seen as myth or reality.)Perspectives are thus explicit, but at the same time they can be tacit or outside awareness. Members of a culture carry out practices, but when asked to explain them, they often cannot specify why the

20、y engage in these practices; they frequently reply, “Thats just the way it is” or “were always doing it this way”. This is not to say that people are unable to specify perspectives, but rather that people tend not to be aware of them. They take them for granted. The maxim “if you want to know about

21、water, dont ask a fish”, often used in intercultural circles, makes this point.Even though most cultural perspectives are tacit, they can be brought to the surface and made explicit, as anthropologists, among others, have demonstrated. It can demand a significant effort to uncover the tacit perspect

22、ives that govern practices. While this discovery is possible, it is questionable whether all tacit perspectives can in fact be surfaced. Some (or many, who knows) remain imprinted in the depths of our reptilian and mammalian brains, beyond the reach of language. 盡管大多數(shù)文化視角的默契，他們可以帶出水面，并作出了明確的，作為人類學家，

23、等等，都展現(xiàn)。它可以要求一個顯著努力揭示支配行為的默許觀點。雖然這個發(fā)現(xiàn)是可能的，這是值得懷疑是否所有隱性的觀點其實都可以浮出水面。有些（或很多，誰知道）留在我們的爬行動物和哺乳動物的大腦深處的烙印，超越語言的范圍。在最明確的等級，觀點表示最經(jīng)常被視為是與態(tài)度相關(guān)的情感，揭示了在文字或做法事。在大多數(shù)情況下，這些感覺是正或負。在大多數(shù)情況下，這些感覺是正或負。（“這個人是不是到時我的預(yù)期。我覺得這個OK?！被蛘摺拔也挥X得ok了這一點?！保┑膽B(tài)度圍值，可作出了明確。 （我不覺得ok了這一點，因為這是不正確的人做這個，一個正常的人不會這么做?！埃┲凳蔷o密聯(lián)系在一起的信念，我們堅持是真的還是假的，也

24、可作出明確的，有反映。 （“我相信，時間是寶貴的?！保┪覀儜?yīng)該立足于觀念，而這些幾乎都是心照不宣的，雖然他們也可以被帶到意識，在考慮或研究。 （“我感知時間的物質(zhì)，如材料，它可以測量，量化，像任何其他商品的處理”。）At the most explicit level, perspectives are expressed most often as feelings that are associated with attitudes, revealed in the words or deeds of practices. For the most part, these feelings

25、 are either positive or negative. For the most part, these feelings are either positive or negative. (“this person is not arriving when I expected. I feel ok about this.” Or “I dont feel ok about this.”) the attitudes enclose values, which can be made explicit. (I dont feel ok about this, because it

26、s not right for someone to do this; a normal person wouldnt do this.”) values are closely linked to beliefs, what we hold to be true or false, which also can be made explicit, with reflection. (“I believe that time is precious.”) we should base on perceptions, and these are almost always tacit, alth

27、ough they too can be brought to awareness, upon reflection or research. (“I perceive time as a substance, as material; it can be measured, quantified, and handled like any other commodity.”) Issues related to time, especially punctuality, illustrate the explicit and tacit nature of perspectives. If

28、Im waiting for someone to arrive at a prearranged time, I begin to feel vaguely uncomfortable as the expected hour passes. The more time elapses, the more irritated I become. It takes a conscious effort to remind myself that my perception of time and the beliefs and values associated with it are in

29、full force. I tell myself that I need to drop my belief that the person I await possesses deep, irreversible character flaws. To move through the emotions and attitudes to discover values, beliefs, and perceptions takes work, especially if the emotions are strong. Strong emotional reactions generall

30、y signal that an important culture perspective has been touched, called into question, or threatened in some way. 與時間相關(guān)，特別是守時的問題，闡明觀點的顯性和隱性的性質(zhì)。如果我等待有人在事先約好的時間到達時，我開始感到隱約不舒服的預(yù)期小時過去了。更多的時間過去時，更激怒我成了。它需要有意識地提醒自己，我的感知時間，信念和與之相關(guān)的值是完全有效。我告訴自己，我必須放棄我的信念，我等待的人擁有深厚的，不可逆轉(zhuǎn)的性格缺陷。移動通過情感和態(tài)度去發(fā)現(xiàn)價值，信仰和觀念需要的工作，尤其是在情緒

31、都很強。強烈的情緒反應(yīng)，通常預(yù)示著一個重要的文化觀點已經(jīng)被觸及，質(zhì)疑，或威脅以某種方式。One way in which perceptions are commonly described in cultural studies is as “worldview”. Literally, worldview is what it suggests: perceptions of all that surrounds one. The assumption underlying the notion of worldview is that of a unified, shared outlo

32、ok on the world. Worldview is used most often to describe the fundamental on the world. Worldview is used most often to describe the fundamental perceptions shared by members of a culture. Perceptions, in the other words, are the organizing element in culture. Beliefs, values, attitudes, practices,

33、and products follow. Perhaps the most obvious illustration of worldviews is religious institutions. Religions propose perspectives on humankind, deity, nature, and the universe. These views engender beliefs, values, and attitudes, which are manifested in the sets of specific practices developed by m

34、embers of the religion. If they adhere to these practices, members will lead a proper way of life.在這種觀念的文化研究通常描述的方法之一是為“世界觀”。從字面上看，世界觀是它表明：一切圍繞著一個看法。世界觀的概念背后的假設(shè)是統(tǒng)一的，共同的世界觀的。世界觀是最常用來形容根本上世界。世界觀是最常用來形容一個文化的成員共享的基本看法。感知，在換句話說，是在培養(yǎng)的組織元素。信念，價值觀，態(tài)度，行為和產(chǎn)品隨之而來。也許是世界觀的最明顯的例證是宗教機構(gòu)。宗教上提出人類，神，自然和宇宙的看法。這些觀點產(chǎn)生的信仰

35、，價值觀和態(tài)度，這表現(xiàn)在由宗教的成員制定了具體的做法集。如果他們堅持這些做法，成員將引領(lǐng)生活的正確方法。When discussing perspectives, we need to recognize that there are two kinds: emic and etic. Emit perspectives are those articulated by members of the culture to explain them and their culture, while etic perspectives are those of outsiders to the c

36、ulture, who use their own criteria to explain the others s culture. 在討論的觀點，我們需要認識到，有兩種：主位和客位。散發(fā)出的觀點是那些闡述了文化的成員解釋他們和他們的文化，同時客位的觀點是那些外人文化，誰用自己的標準來解釋他人的文化。Etic perspectives include those of visitors to the culture, the criteria they use to describe and explain what they encounter, as well as categories

37、 for cross-cultural description and analysis established by anthropologists and other culture researchers to describe many cultures. Etic perspectives, therefore, provide frameworks to describe, analyze, and explain a culture from the outside. Each etic category carries assumptions about the nature

38、of culture, and it is important to bring out these assumptions.客位觀點包括那些游人的文化，他們用來描述和解釋他們遇到了人類學家和其他文化研究者制定的標準，以及跨文化的介紹和分析類別來形容許多文化?？臀坏挠^點，因此，提供的框架來描述，分析，并從外部解釋的文化。每個客位類別攜帶關(guān)于培養(yǎng)的性質(zhì)的假設(shè)，并帶出這些假設(shè)是很重要的。Emic explanations are perspectives that members of the culture use to describe or explain their own way of

39、life. These perspectives do not necessarily correspond to etic categories, nor does the terminology that the members use for their explanations. When asked, members may easily express the reasons for cultural products and practices. Or, given that many fundamental cultural perspectives are outside a

40、wareness, like the submerged bulk of the cultural iceberg, members may have difficulty finding word to fully explain them, just as I had no explanation on American toilet training practices.主位的解釋是文化的成員用來描述或解釋自己的生活方式觀點。這些角度并不一定對應(yīng)于客位類別，也沒有該部件用于它們的解釋的術(shù)語。當記者問，成員可以輕松地表達的原因，文化產(chǎn)品和做法?；蛘?，由于許多基本的文化視角之外的意識，就像淹

41、沒大部分的文化一角，成員可能很難找到字，充分說明他們的，正如我對美國的如廁訓練的做法沒有任何解釋。對外漢語教師說明了從兩個不同的文化，他的祖國喀麥隆和我們看到了同樣的感人行為，內(nèi)幕/外視角學生在他的法語課。A foreign language teacher illustrates the insider/outside perspectives on the same touching behaviors seen from two different cultures, his native Cameroon and the u.s. students in his French clas

42、s.在我的法語課，我們正在審查的問候。通常的卓悅，薩呂，等以后我介紹了握手。我問他們多久握手與他們的朋友。答案是幾乎永遠不會。然后，我向他們解釋，怎么啦喀麥隆將在同一天握手數(shù)次。每當他們見面，他們可以握手。學生們說，他們真的不舒服被感動。我們探討了可能的原因喀麥隆人握手了這么多，主要一個是有限的個人空間的人讓自己在喀麥隆。In my French class, we were reviewing greetings. After the usual bonjour, salut, etc. I introduced handshaking. I asked them how often the

43、y shake hands with their friends. The answer was rarely to never. I then explained to them how friends in Cameroon would shake hands several times during the same day. Whenever they would meet, they could shake hands. Students said they really be uncomfortable to be touched. We explored the possible

44、 reasons why Cameroonians shake hand so much, with the main one being the limited personal space people allow themselves in Cameroon.To make things worse, I told them that friend, brothers, sisters walk hand in hand-literally-in Cameroon, without that having any connotation. When they heard this, mo

45、st students were shocked, expect for a Korean-american student. He said that on a trip to south korea he noticed people holding hands everywhere, and he thought everybody was gay. He said he refused to hold hands with his cousins, and they thought he was just a weird American kid. Students admitted

46、theyd try holding hands only if they had to.更糟糕的是，我告訴他們的朋友，兄弟，姐妹攜手同行，從字面上 - 在喀麥隆，沒有說有任何內(nèi)涵。當他們聽到這句話，大多數(shù)學生感到震驚，希望為韓國裔學生。他說，上了一趟韓國南部他注意到人們牽著手無處不在，他認為每個人是同性戀。他說，他拒絕執(zhí)子之手與他的表兄弟，他們以為他只是一個奇怪的美國孩子。學生承認他們會抱著試試看的手，只有當他們不得不去面對。As a Cameroonian living in this country, I have noticed that people in the united sta

47、tes dont touch each other a lot. The rare occasions that I have observed people touching others are when expressing approval or satisfaction for a job well done; a tap on the shoulder (usually from a superior/coach, etc.); when sealing a deal (handshake); for a farewell (hug); friends giving each ot

48、her a hug to comfort one another. I have also observed that holding hands occurs in the following situations: parents hold younger kids when crossing roads; lovers hold hands as a sign of intimate affection. Although not explicit, when two individuals of the same gender are seen holding hands, peopl

49、e in this country always consider them love partners.作為一名喀麥隆生活在這個國家，我注意到，人們在美國不互相接觸了很多。在罕見的情況下，我看到別人摸別人都表示認可或滿意為工作做得好的時候;在肩部（通常從上級/教練等）的抽頭;密封處理（握手）時;為告別（擁抱）;朋友給對方一個擁抱來安慰彼此。我也觀察到，手牽著手出現(xiàn)在以下幾種情況：父母過馬路時，應(yīng)舉行年輕的孩子;戀人手牽著手的親密感情的象征。雖然不明確，當同一性別的兩個人都見過牽著手，人在這個國家總是認為他們的愛情的合作伙伴。In view of the unfortunate and bia

50、sed negative perception of gay and lesbian life in many American cultural circles, students do not want people to think they are gay or lesbian. The issue of use of personal space also comes into play here. In general, people in united states need a large personal space. Touching infringes that free

51、dom.鑒于同性戀生活的許多美國文化界的不幸和偏負面的看法，學生不希望人們認為他們是同性戀。使用個人空間的問題也出現(xiàn)在這里發(fā)揮作用。一般來說，人們在美國需要一個大的私人空間。觸摸侵犯的自由。My goal was to show students the different interpretations the same personal behavior can have according to cultures. One behavior can be marked in one culture and unmarked in another. I wanted to stress t

52、he fact that people in Cameroon are closer, and they tolerate being touched by and touching acquaintances. I think my students became aware of the difference. I hope that if they ever find themselves in Cameroon or surrounded by a bunch of Cameroonians, theyll remember that shaking hands is ok and e

53、ven expected, and that holding hands does not mean people are intimate. Lovers in Cameroon seldom hold hands! I dont recall seeing my own parents holding hands, let alone showing any other sign of affection to each other!我的目標是向?qū)W生展示了不同的解釋相同的個人行為，可根據(jù)文化都有。一個行為可以被標記在一個文化和無人盯防的另一回事。我想強調(diào)的是，人們在喀麥隆更接近，而且他們?nèi)?/p>

54、忍被感動和感人的熟人。我覺得我的同學才知道的差異。我希望，如果他們發(fā)現(xiàn)自己在喀麥隆或一堆喀麥隆的包圍，他們會記住，握手是確定的，甚至預(yù)期，并牽手并不意味著人是貼心。在喀麥隆愛好者很少牽手！我不記得我看到自己的父母牽著手，更別說展示親情的任何其他標志，以對方！So hopefully my students will not say “gross!” or “thats gay!” when they see such behavior in a Cameroonian setting, or even in a Korean one, as we learned from the Korean

55、-American boy.Adapted from teaching culture: perspectives in practice by P.R.Moran所以希望我的學生不會說“毛！”或者“這是同性戀！”當他們看到這樣的行為在喀麥隆的設(shè)置，甚至在韓國之一，我們從韓國，美國男孩教訓。通過PRMoran在實踐中的觀點：從教學文化適應(yīng)Cultural values and interpersonal relationships文化價值觀和人際關(guān)系Cultures have values that are largely shared by their members. The values

56、 of a society can often be identified by noting which people receive honor or respect. Values are related to the norms of a culture, but they are more global and abstract than norms. Norms are rules for behavior in specific situations, while values identify what should be judged as good or evil. Fly

57、ing the national flag on a holiday is a norm, but it reflects the value of patriotism. Wearing dark clothing and appearing solemn are normative behaviors at a funeral. In certain cultures they reflect the values of respect and support of friends and family. Different cultures reflect different value

58、s. In order for a person to succeed in life, an education is not the only thing that they will need. An education is a stepping stone to success, but one needs to develop their abilities to mingle with other people. In the age of globalization, its more important to improve their competence of inter

59、personal communication, which depends on realization of diversities in cultural values.文化具有通過其成員主要是共同的價值觀。一個社會的價值觀往往可以通過觀察人們獲得的榮譽和尊敬識別。值與文化的規(guī)范，但他們更全球性和規(guī)范比抽象。規(guī)范是在特定情況下的行為規(guī)則，而值確定哪些應(yīng)該定性為善或惡。飄揚的國旗上度假是一種常態(tài)，但它反映了愛國主義的價值。身穿深色衣服和莊嚴的出現(xiàn)是在葬禮上規(guī)范的行為。在某些文化中，他們反映了尊重和支持的朋友和家人的價值觀。不同的文化反映了不同的價值觀。為了讓一個人在生活中取得成功，教育是不是

60、唯一的東西，他們將需要。教育是一個敲門磚，而是一個需要發(fā)展自己的能力打成一片與其他人。在全球化的時代，它更重要的是要提高人際溝通，這取決于實現(xiàn)文化多樣性價值的競爭力。Cultural assumptions and values文化假設(shè)和值Values are relatively concrete, discrete, and specific; for instance, typical American values are the sanctity of private property, the desirability of physical comfort, and the ne