中國的稀土產(chǎn)業(yè)：西方能學(xué)到什么？-外文文獻與翻譯

China'sRareEarthElementsIndustry:WhatCantheWestLearn?ByCindyHurstCorporateAuthor:

INSTITUTEFORTHEANALYSISOFGLOBALSECURITYWASHINGTONDCPersonalAuthor(s):

Hurst,CindyReportDate:

MAR2021PaginationorMediaCount:

43InstitutefortheAnalysisofGlobalSecurity(IAGS)U.S.ArmyForeignMilitaryStudiesOffice,731McClellanAvenue,FortLeavenworth,KS,66027CindyHurstisananalystfortheU.S.Army’sForeignMilitaryStudiesOffice,FortLeavenworth,KSIntroductionChinacontrolsapproximately97percentoftheworld'srareearthelementmarket.Theseelements,whicharenotwidelyknownbecausetheyaresolowontheproductionchain,arecriticaltohundredsofhightechapplications,manyofwhichdefineourmodernwayoflife.Withoutrareearthelements,muchoftheworld'smoderntechnologywouldbevastlydifferentandmanyapplicationswouldnotbepossible.Foronething,wewouldnothavetheadvantageofsmallersizedtechnology,suchasthecellphoneandlaptopcomputer,withouttheuseofrareearthelements.Rareearthelementsarealsoessentialforthedefenseindustryandarefoundincruisemissiles,precisionguidedmunitions,radarsystemsandreactivearmor.Theyarealsokeytotheemergenceofgreentechnologysuchasthenewgenerationofwindpoweredturbinesandplug-inhybridvehicles,aswellastooilrefineries,wheretheyactasacatalyst.(Note:formorein-depthinformationonthespecificusesofrareearthelements,refertoAppendixA).Overthepastfewyears,Chinahascomeunderincreasingscrutinyandcriticismoveritsmonopolyoftherareearthindustryandforgraduallyreducingexportquotasoftheseresources.However,Chinaisfacedwithitsowninternalissuesthat,ifnotaddressed,couldsoonstressthecountry'srareearthindustry.ThispaperisdesignedtogivethereaderabetterunderstandingofwhatrareearthelementsareandtheirimportancetosocietyingeneralandtoU.S.defenseandenergypolicyinparticular.ItwillalsoexplorethehistoryofrareearthelementsandChina'scurrentmonopolyoftheindustry,includingpossiblerepercussionsandstrategicimplicationsifrareearthelementssupplyweretobedisrupted.TheIssuesChinaFacesAccordingtoZhaoShuanglian,ViceChairmanofInnerMongolia’sAutonomousRegions,“Rareearthisauniquetreasure,anditisalsoInnerMongolia’sprimarystrategicresource.”WhileChinapossessesapproximately57percentoftheworld’sreservesofrareearthelements,theindustrywithinChinaisplaguedwithdisorderlydevelopmentandpoormanagementpractices.TheChinesegovernmentfearsthatifthecurrentpoorminingpracticesandlackofregulationcontinue,Chinawill“becomearare-earthpoorcountry,orevenacountrywithoutrareearthelements.”O(jiān)therissuesfacingChina’srareearthindustryaresmugglingandillegalminingactivities,environmentaldamageduetopoorminingpractice,andthegrowingchallengeofensuringitsowndomesticneedsofrareearth.SmugglingAccordingtoChinaBusinessNews,duetotheannualincreaseddemandforrareearthelements,manybuyersareresortingtosmugglingrareearthsoutofChina.In2021,approximately20,000tonsofrareearthwerereportedlysmuggledfromthecountry.Meanwhile,duringthatsameyear,accordingtoofficialcustomsstatistics,Chinaexported39,500tonsofrareearthoxide.Thismeansthatsmugglingaccountedforone-thirdofthetotalvolumeofrareearthsleavingChina.OneaimofChina’s“Rare-EarthIndustryDevelopmentPlanof2021-2021”istotrytocurbsomeofthesmugglingbyintroducingregulationsandpoliciestopunishthesmugglers.SmugglingispotentiallydetrimentaltoChina’srareearthindustrybecauseitkeepspriceslowanddepletesresourcesquicker.Smugglingalsoindicatesaseverelackofcontrolovertheindustryandcanleadtoevengreaterrepercussionssuchasmoredamagetotheenvironment.Regulationsonsafeminingpracticearenearlyimpossibletoenforceinthistypeofenvironment.Asitis,becauseofpoormanagementpracticesandthelargescaleoftheindustry,Chinaalreadyhasdifficultyinenforcingregulationstoimprovesafetyandenvironmentalmeasuresinitsrareearthindustry.SevereenvironmentaldamageAmajorconcernsurroundingChina’spracticeofminingrareearthelementsisthenegativeimpactithastotheenvironmentduetolaxminingpractices.Thereareanumberofpotentialenvironmentalimplicationstominingrareearthelementsifnotdoneproperly.Unfortunately,becauseoftherevenuepotential,manyrareearthmineshavebeenoperatingillegally,withnoregulation,causingsevereenvironmentalhazards,whichexacerbatestheproblem.In2021,XuGuangxianwrotethatthoriumwasasourceofradioactivecontaminationintheBaotouareaandtheYellowRiver.Accordingtoalocalsource,whoaskednottobeidentified,“IntheYellowRiver,inBaotou,thefishalldied.Theydumpthewaste–thechemicalsintotheriver.Youcannoteatthefishbecausetheyarepolluted.”Some150millionpeopledependontheriverastheirprimarysourceofwater.Undertraditionaltechnologymeans,refiningrareearthelementsrequiressuchchemicalsasammoniumbicarbonateandoxalicacid.Thepotentialhealthhazardsofammoniumbicarbonateinclude:Irritationtotherespiratorytractifinhaled,irritationtothegastrointestinaltractifingested,rednessandpainifitcomesincontactwiththeeyes,andredness,itching,andpainifitcomesincontactwiththeskin.Oxalicacidispoisonousandpotentiallyfatalifswallowed.Itisalsocorrosiveandcausessevereirritationandburnstotheskin,eyes,andrespiratorytract,isharmfulifinhaledorabsorbedthroughtheskin,andcancausekidneydamage.TheseandotherchemicalsoftenfindtheirwayintotheYellowRiver.SafetystandardsinChinaarelax.“Peopleintheir30shavediedofcancerworkingaroundthemines,possiblyfromradioactivematerials,”saidonelocalsource.“Ivisitedafactorymanytimes.WhenIvisitafactoryorworkshop,Itellthedirectoroftheworkshop,‘wouldyoutellthelaborerstoputtheirmaskonwhentheyaredoingtheirjob?’Hesaid,‘Ohyeah.Wedoeverytime,butit’stoohot.Theydon’twanttokeeptheirmaskon.’Youcanseethattheairisdirtyandtheyarebreathingitallin.”ThemostcommondiseaseinBaotouispneumoconiosis,betterknownasblacklung.Thereare5,387residentsinBaotouwhosufferfromblacklung,whichmakesupmorethan50percentofthecasesintheautonomousregion.WhileChinamighthavegeneralpollutioncontrolstandards,thecountryhasneveractuallyworkedoutpollutantdischargestandardsfortherareearthindustry.AstherareearthindustryinChinahasrapidlygrown,therehasbeennoeffectivewaytocontroltheusualpollutantssuchasammonia,nitrogen,andthoriumdust,whichareemittedduringtheproductionphase.Furthermore,generalhealthandsafetyregulationsareoftenignoredforanumberofreasons,including:?Theindustryislargeandchallengingtomonitor.?Peopleandcompaniesarenotbeingheldaccountable.Forexample,inWesternsociety,ifanemployeediesorbecomesill,repercussionscouldincludealawsuitorlife-longpensionwhichthecompanyisobligatedtofulfill.ThisisnotthecaseinChina.DomesticconsumptionisapriorityWith1.3billionpeopleandthefastestgrowingeconomyintheworld,Chinaisfacedwiththechallengingtaskofensuringithasadequatenaturalresourcestosustaineconomicgrowth,whilealsotryingtoappeasetheinternationalcommunity,whichhasbeenprotestingChina’scutsinrareearthexportquotas.AccordingtoWangCaifeng,in2021Chinaused70,000tonsofrareearthelements.Globalconsumptionwas130,000tons.Chinaexported10,000tonsofrareearthmagnetsworth$400millionand34,600tonsofotherrareearthproductsworth$500million.TherearenumerousexamplesthatpointtoChina’santicipatedincreaseinrareearthconsumption.Forexample,attheendofJuly2021,Chinahad600millioncellphoneusers.Lessthanoneyearlater,bytheendofMarch2021,Chinahad670millioncellphoneusers.Newtechnologies,suchasthethirdgeneration(3G)networks,haveboostedthesaleofcellphones,atrendwhichwilllikelycontinueasmoreandmoreChinesecitizensbuycellphonesandothersupgradetothenewtechnologies.Puttingitintoperspective,inChina,approximately50percentofthepopulationhascellphones.CTIA,theInternationalAssociationforWirelessTelecommunications,reportedinOctober2021thattheU.S.(withapopulationof304millionpeopleasofJuly2021)hadmorethan262millionwirelesssubscribers.Thismeansthat86percentoftheentireU.S.populationhadcellphones.IfChinaweretofollowthesametechnologicalgrowthpatternsastheU.S.,thecountrycouldonedayhaveapproximately1.1billioncellphonesormore.Inanotherexample,theuseofsolarandwindpoweraresettoincreaseexponentiallyinChina.Greenenergytechnologyisexpectedtobecomethelargestconsumerofrareearthelementsinthefuture.AccordingtoMarkSmith,ChiefExecutiveOfficerofMolycorpMinerals,thecompanythatownsandoperatestheMountainPassrareearthmineinCalifornia,“We’vecoinedtheterm,‘thegreenelements.’becausetherearesomanyapplicationsrightnowhybridelectricvehicles,windpoweredgeneration…permanentmagnetgenerators,compactfluorescentlightbulbs…Justtonameafew.Rareearthsareabsolutelyindispensable.They(greentechnologies)willnotworkwithoutrareearths.”China’sconsumptionofrareearthelementsisalsoexpectedtoincreasedramaticallyasmoreandmoreforeigncompaniesmovetheirproductionsitestoChinatotakeadvantageofthelowercostofrareearthsandthereforereducetheiroverallproductioncosts.ThisispartofChina’slargerstrategytomaintainatightholdontheindustry.ChinaFightsBackbeforeit’stooLate:ImplicationsfortheWestIn2021,XuGuangxiancalledforprotectivemeasuresintherareearthindustry,warningthatrareearthandthoriumresourcesatBayanObowerein“urgentneedofprotectionandrationalutilization.”XupointedoutthatsinceBayanObohadstartedoffexclusivelyasanironoremine,itdidnotproperlyconsiderwaystorecoverrareearthsandthorium.Since1958,whenBaotouIronandSteelWorksbegantheirminingoperations,250milliontonsoforehadbeenminedatthemainandeasternorebodies,leavingaremainingorevolumeof350milliontons.AttheratethatChinawasmining–10milliontonsoforeperyear–Xuestimatedthatthemainandeasternorebodieswouldbecompletelydepletedwithin35years.Withsomuchemphasisplacedontheimportanceofrareearthelementsinmoderndaytechnology,maintainingstrictcontroloverthisresourcewillhelptopropelChinaintoapositionofgreaterpolitical,economic,andmilitarypower.Priorto2021,accordingtoDaiXu,anexpertonmilitaryissues,“Chinahadbeensellingthesepreciousrare-earthmetalsatadirt-cheappricefor20years.”Thishasbothbeenstrippingthecountryofoneofitsmostimportantstrategicresourcesanddamagingtheenvironment.Inanefforttotrytoprotectitsresources,theChinesegovernmenthasbeenclampingdownonitsdomesticindustryinseveralways,including:restrictingexportquotasonrareearthelements;closingdownsmallerandillegalrareearthoperationsandconsolidatinglargeronesinanefforttogainmorecontrol;tryingtoputintoplaceincreasedenvironmentallawsregulatingrareearthmining;andstockpiling.Muchofthedevelopedworldregardsthesemeasuresasthreatening.RestrictingexportquotasOfmostconcerntotheinternationalcommunity,Chinahasbeenrestrictingexportquotasinordertohaveenoughresourcesforitsownindustriesandtoregaincontroloveritsdomesticoperations.Chinacurrentlyrestrictsexportquotasondysprosium,terbium,thulium,lutetium,yttrium,andtheheavyandscarcerrareearths.Thisreductionofexportquotashaspusheduptheinternationalpriceofkeyrareearths,includingneodymiumwhichissocriticalfortheneodymium-iron-boronpermanentmagnets.TheMinistryofLandandResourcesimplementedaregulationstatingthatthe2021exportquotaforrareearthoreswouldbesetat82,320tons,72,300ofwhicharelightrareearthelements,theremaining10,020tonsbeingheavyrareearthelements.Thesenumberswerebasedon“controlsofthetotalamountofextractionfor”rareearthorefor2021andforecastsformarketfactorsin2021.Morecutsareexpectedinthefuture.Ofcourse,thisbringsaboutanewfear.China’scontroloverrareearthelementshasthepotentialtoincreaseforeigndependenceonChinaforfinishedgoods.Chinahasadoptedvariouspoliciestofurtherdeveloptherareearthindustryatitsroots.China’svisionistoincreaseindustrialutilizationofrareearthelementsinordertodrawinmorerareearthenterprises,bothwithinandoutsideofChina,tosetupoperationsinInnerMongoliaintheareaofrareearthapplications.ZhaoShuanglianpointedoutthatInnerMongoliawantedtocontrolitsrareearthresourcessothatitcouldbecomeamajorindustrialbase.ZhaoalsoexpressedaninterestinattractingmoredomesticandinternationalinterestinInnerMongoliatodeveloptherareearthindustry.ThisisanidealscenarioforChinabecauseitwillgivethecountrycompletecontrolovertheindustryandprovidemorejobopportunitiesforChinesecitizensinthemanufacturingindustry.However,forthosecountriesforcedtomovetheirproductionbasestoChinaduetotheirdependenceonrareearthelements,jobsarelostand,perhapsmorecriticaltonationalsecurity,proprietaryandevencriticaltechnologieswilllikelybecompromised.ClosingsmalleroperationsandconsolidatinglargeronestogainmorecontrolChinaisstrivingtocutbackandconsolidatetheindustrytogainmorecontroloverit.Itisachievingthisbyclosingdownsmaller,illegaloperationsandconsolidatingandmerginglargerproducers.ThesestepswillultimatelyputcompletecontroloverChineserareearthelementsintothegovernment’shands,whichwillcompletelyrestrictanytypeofprivateenterpriseexchange.China’srareearthresourcesarewidelydistributedacross22provincesandregionsthroughoutthecountry.Becauseofthescattereddistributionofrareearthresources,itisdifficulttocarryoutefficientoversightoftheindustry.Accordingtoonesource,areviseddraftofthe2021-2021PlansforDevelopingtheRareEarthIndustrywillsimplifymanagementofChina’srareearthresourcesby“designatinglargedistricts.”ThenewplanwilldivideChina’sindustryintothreelargedistricts–south,north,andwest.ThesoutherndistrictisJiangxi,Guangdong,Fujian,Hunan,andGuangxi;thenortherndistrictisInnerMongoliaandShandong;andthewesterndistrictisSichuan.From2021to2021,lightrareearthswillbetheitemoffocusinInnerMongoliaandSichuan,withsomedevelopmentinShandongasneeded.MediumandheavyrareearthminingwillbethefocusinJiangxi,Guangdong,andFujian.TheMinistryofIndustryandInformationTechnologywilloverseetheindustrybycreatinganexpertexaminationsystemforrareearthextraction.Thesystemwillincludeimpromptuonsitevisitsandinspectionstoensurenationaldirectiveplansarebeingimplementedandexecuted.On10December2021,BaotouSteelRareEarthsetuptheInnerMongoliaBaotouSteelRareEarthHigh-TechCo.,astate-ownedsole-proprietorcompanyintherareearthshigh-techzoneofInnerMongolia;andInnerMongoliaBaotouSteelRareEarthHigh-TechCo.wasaneight-party,700-millionYuan($102.5million)jointventurethatincludedBaotouHuameiRareEarthHigh-techCo.,ZiboBaosteelLingzhiRareEarthHi-TechCo.,InnerMongoliaBaosteelandRare-EarthDevelopmentCo.Thenewventureissupposedtobethecontrollingvoiceoftherareearthindustrybyusinganewbusinessmodelwithaunifiedorganizationandproductionarrangement,unifiedpurchasing,andunifiedsales.Priortothis,thestatehadpromotedtheideaofestablishingtwomajorrareearthgroups,oneinthenorthandoneinthesouth.However,itwasdifficulttobalancetheinterestsbetweenthetwoenterprisesandtheplannevercametofruition.Thebiggestadvantagetohavingoneenterpriseinchargeoftheindustryiseasiercentralcontrolofpricing.Havingacentralizedenterpriseshouldalsofacilitateturningtheregionintoarareearth“productionofgoods”zone.NewregulationstoprotecttheenvironmentChinadoesnothavepollutantdischargestandardsfortherareearthindustry.Environmentalissuesbehindtheminingofrareearthelementsareahugeconcern.ThedifferencesbetweenWesternminingeffortsandthoseseeninChinatodayarestaggering.Awareoftheproblem,thelocalgovernmentisreportingtobetryingtofindwaystoimprovethesituation.InJuly2021,theMinistryofEnvironmentalProtectionorganizedthe“RareEarthIndustryPollutantDischargeStandards.”Thesenewstandardswillhopefully“eliminatebackwardproductionabilitiesandpromotetheupgradingandupdatingofChina’srareearthindustry.”TheMinistryofEnvironmentalProtectionsetdischargestandardsforsixtypesofatmosphericpollutants–sulfurdioxide,particles,fluoride,chlorine,hydrogenchloride,andsulfurtrioxide.Forwaterpollutants,dischargestandardsweresetfor14typesofpollutants,includingfluoride,totalphosphorous,totalcarbon,totalnitrogen,andammonianitrogen.Inmanysouthernregionswithlakes,thenewstandardsimplementspecialdischargelimitsforammonianitrogendischargeconcentrations.Thesenewstandardsaresplitintotwoparts,onepartforexistingenterprisesandtheotherpartfornewlybuiltenterprises.Underthenewstandards,rareearthenterprisesarerequiredtoincreasetheirinvestmentinenvironmentalprotectionandimproveproductiontechnologiesandcosts.StockpilingXuGuangxian,China’s“FatherofRareEarths,”hasbeenpushingtohaveChinabuildupitsstrategicreservesofrareearths.AccordingtoXu,“We(China)mustsetupastockpilingsystemforrareearthsandthorium(thoriumforenergy)andsupportleadingdomesticproducerslikeBaogang,Minmetals,andJiangxiCoppertoimplementthestockpiling.”AccordingtoXu,JapanandSouthKoreahavebuiltupstockpiles,whichareenoughfor20yearsofconsumption,bytakingadvantageoflowmarketpricesbefore2021whenChinabegantorestrictproduction,butChinahasn’tsetupastockpilingsystemyet.AccordingtoAnSihu,assistantdirectoroftheRareEarthHigh-TechZoneManagementCommittee,Chinahasmajorplanstobuildanationalrareearthresourcesstrategicreservesbase.ThetentativeplanistostoreuptherawmaterialsthatwerenotusedupfromtheannualexcavationatBaosteelandusethattostabilizeprices.EffortscurrentlyareunderwayinNorthernChinatorealizethisgoal.AnewrareearthindustryparkbeganconstructioninJuly2021andistobelocatedinNorthernChina.However,inordertobecompletelyeffective,allofChina’srareearthregionsneedtoconsolidatetheireffortstowardtheconstructionanduseofthisplannedrareearthstrategicreservesite.Xucontinuallywarnsaboutdepletingrareearthreservesfromoverproduction.StockpilingrareearthelementswillallowChinatobetterregulatethepricingofrareearthsaswellashelpensureitsownfuturesupplies.From/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA525378中國的稀土產(chǎn)業(yè)：西方能學(xué)到什么？集團華盛頓全球安全分析研究所個人辛蒂·赫斯特發(fā)表日期：2021年3月全球安全分析研究所（IAGS）堪薩斯州利溫沃斯堡麥克萊倫大街731號美國陸軍外國軍事研究室，66027辛蒂·赫斯特：堪薩斯州利溫沃斯堡美國陸軍外國軍事研究辦公室分析師。引言中國控制著全球約97%的稀土市場。這些元素并不廣為人知，因為他們在生產(chǎn)鏈中是如此之低，但卻是成百上千的高科技應(yīng)用的關(guān)鍵，其中的許多決定了我們的現(xiàn)代生活方式。沒有稀土元素，世界上大部分的現(xiàn)代科技將大大不同，許多應(yīng)用型產(chǎn)品也將無法使用。一方面，不使用稀土元素，我們就沒有微型技術(shù)的優(yōu)勢，如和筆記本電腦。稀土元素對國防工業(yè)也是必不可少的，應(yīng)用于巡航導(dǎo)彈，精確制導(dǎo)武器，雷達系統(tǒng)和反應(yīng)裝甲。他們也是綠色技術(shù)得以發(fā)展的關(guān)鍵，如新一代的風(fēng)力發(fā)電機和插電式混合動力汽車以及煉油廠，均需要稀土元素作催化劑。在過去的幾年中，中國對其壟斷的稀土行業(yè)的審查和批評日益嚴格，并逐漸減少稀土的出口配額。然而，中國面臨著自身的內(nèi)部問題，如果不解決，可能很快就會對其稀土行業(yè)產(chǎn)生不利影響。本文的目的是讓讀者更好地了解稀土元素和它們在社會上的一般重要性，以及對美國國防和能源政策的特殊性。本文還將探討稀土元素與中國目前的行業(yè)壟斷的歷史，包括在稀土元素供應(yīng)被中斷后可能產(chǎn)生的影響和戰(zhàn)略意義。中國面臨的問題根據(jù)內(nèi)蒙古自治區(qū)副主席趙雙連所說，“稀土是一種獨特的珍寶，也是內(nèi)蒙古的主要戰(zhàn)略資源”。盡管中國擁有約占世界57%的稀土儲量，但中國的稀土行業(yè)存在的無序發(fā)展和管理不善的問題。中國政府擔心，如果目前這種簡陋的開采方式和監(jiān)管的缺乏繼續(xù)下去，中國將成為“稀土貧乏的國家，甚至是一個沒有稀土資源的國家”。中國稀土行業(yè)面臨的其他問題還有稀土走私和非法采礦活動，惡劣開采方式所造成的環(huán)境破壞以及確保不斷增長的國內(nèi)稀土需求的挑戰(zhàn)。走私據(jù)第一財經(jīng)日報，由于每年對稀土資源的不斷增長的需求，很多買家都從中國走私稀土。據(jù)報道，2021年該國約20210噸稀土被走私。同時根據(jù)海關(guān)統(tǒng)計數(shù)據(jù)，同一年中國出口了39500噸稀土氧化物。這意味著走私占中國出境稀土總量的三分之一。“中國稀土產(chǎn)業(yè)2021-2021發(fā)展計劃”的一個目的是試圖通過引入懲罰走私者的法規(guī)和政策來遏制走私行為。走私對中國稀土產(chǎn)業(yè)具有潛在的不利影響，它價格低，消耗資源也更快。走私也表明嚴重缺乏對行業(yè)的控制，這可能會造成更大的不利影響，如對環(huán)境產(chǎn)生更多的破壞。安全開采方式的法規(guī)幾乎不可能在這種環(huán)境中執(zhí)行。實際上，由于糟糕的管理實踐和巨大的行業(yè)規(guī)模，中國在執(zhí)行提高安全的法規(guī)和貫徹稀土行業(yè)的環(huán)境保護措施方面具有難度。嚴重的環(huán)境破壞中國稀土開采的關(guān)注重點是由松懈的開采方式對環(huán)境所造成的負面影響。如果做得不恰當，會有許多潛在的環(huán)境因素影響稀土開采。不幸的是，由于可觀的收入，許多稀土礦山缺乏監(jiān)管，非法經(jīng)營，造成了嚴重的環(huán)境危害，這加劇了問題的嚴重性。2021年，徐光憲寫道，釷元素是包頭和黃河地區(qū)的放射性污染源。根據(jù)當?shù)匾晃徊辉竿嘎缎彰娜耸浚霸邳S河、包頭，魚都死了。他們把化學(xué)品廢棄物倒入河中。你不能吃魚，因為他們都被污染了。”約1.5億人依靠河流作為他們的主要水源。傳統(tǒng)的技術(shù)手段下，提煉稀土元素需要碳酸氫銨和草酸這樣的化學(xué)品。碳酸氫銨的潛在健康危害包括：如果吸入會刺激呼吸道，吸收后會刺激胃腸道，如果接觸眼睛會使其發(fā)紅和疼痛，如果與皮膚接觸會使其發(fā)紅、瘙癢甚至疼痛。草酸是有毒的，如果吞下則可能致命。它也具有強烈的腐蝕性，會對皮膚、眼睛和呼吸道造成嚴重的刺激和灼傷，如果吸入或通過皮膚吸收是十分有害的，會導(dǎo)致腎臟損傷。但這些和其他化學(xué)物質(zhì)經(jīng)常流入黃河。在中國的安全標準比較寬松?！霸诘V山工作的人們30多歲就死于癌癥，很可能是由于放射性物質(zhì)”，一位當?shù)厝耸空f?！拔叶啻螀⒂^了一個工廠，當我參觀一個工廠或車間，我問車間主任：‘當他們工作時你會告訴工人叫他們戴上面具嗎？’他說：‘是的，我們每次都會，但它太燙了，他們不想戴著面具?！憧梢钥吹?，他們污濁的空氣都吸了進去?！痹诎^最常見的疾病是塵肺病，一般多稱為黑肺。有5387個包頭居民患有黑肺，占據(jù)了自治區(qū)一半以上的病例。雖然中國可能有一般污染控制標準，但國家還沒有制定出稀土工業(yè)污染物排放標準。中國的稀土產(chǎn)業(yè)在迅速成長，但卻一直沒有控制如氨、氮以及釷塵等在生產(chǎn)階段產(chǎn)生的常見污染物的有效途徑。此外，一般的健康和安全規(guī)章制度往往由于各種原因而被忽視，包括：?行業(yè)龐大，實行監(jiān)測具有挑戰(zhàn)性。?個人和企業(yè)不承擔責(zé)任。例如，在西方社會，如果一個雇員死亡或生病，后果可能包括訴訟和終身年金，這是公司必須義務(wù)履行的，但在中國卻不是這樣的。滿足國內(nèi)消費是當務(wù)之急作為世界上具有13億人口和經(jīng)濟增長最快的國家，中國面臨著具有挑戰(zhàn)性的任務(wù)，既要確保國內(nèi)具有足夠的自然資源來維持經(jīng)濟增長，同時也試圖滿足已在抗議中國削減稀土出口配額的國際社會。根據(jù)王采風(fēng)，2021年中國消耗了7萬噸稀土資源，全球消費量為13萬噸。中國出口1萬噸稀土永磁體價值4億美元，34600噸的其他稀土產(chǎn)品價值5億美元。有無數(shù)的例子指出中國的稀土消費量預(yù)計增加。例如，2021年7月底，中國有6億用戶。不到一年后，2021年3月底，中國有6.7億用戶。新技術(shù)如第三代（3G）網(wǎng)絡(luò)增加了的銷量，這一趨勢很可能會繼續(xù)，越來越多的中國公民會購買，其他人員則將不斷升級達到最新技術(shù)。整體來看，中國大約一半人口擁有。國際無線通信協(xié)會在2021年10月報道，美國（截至2021年7月人口為3.04億）有超過2.62億的用戶。這意味著整個美國86%的人口擁有。如果中國遵循與美國相同的技術(shù)增長模式，中國有一天可能會有大約11億的用戶甚至更多。另一個例子中，太陽能和風(fēng)能的使用在中國將以指數(shù)方式增加。綠色能源技術(shù)有望成為未來稀土資源的最大消費者。根據(jù)莫利礦業(yè)公司的首席執(zhí)行官馬克·史密斯，該公司擁有和經(jīng)營加利福尼亞帕斯山的稀土礦，“我們創(chuàng)造了這個術(shù)語‘綠色元素’，因為有這么多的產(chǎn)品需要應(yīng)用稀土元素如混合動力汽車、風(fēng)力發(fā)電機……永磁發(fā)電機、緊湊型熒光燈泡等等。稀土是必不可少的，沒有稀土他們（綠色技術(shù)）將無法正常運作”。隨著越來越多的外國企業(yè)將其生產(chǎn)基地轉(zhuǎn)移到中國，利用其罕見的低成本稀土來降低整體生產(chǎn)成本，中國的稀土消費也將急劇增加。這是中國為緊緊把握稀土行業(yè)的大戰(zhàn)略的一部分。中國及時的對策措施：對西方的啟示2021年，徐光憲呼吁對稀土產(chǎn)業(yè)實行保護措施，并提出警告白云鄂博的稀土和釷資源“迫切需要保護和合理利用”。徐指出，自從白云鄂博開始專門生產(chǎn)稀土礦，它沒有適當?shù)乜紤]回收稀土和釷元素的方式。1958年開始，包頭鋼鐵廠開始采礦作業(yè)，2.5億噸的礦石已在主體礦和東部礦體開采，留下剩余的3.5億噸礦石量。以中國現(xiàn)有的開采速度，每年1000萬噸，徐估計主礦和東礦會在35年內(nèi)完全耗盡。不斷強調(diào)稀土資源在現(xiàn)代科技中的重要性，保持對該資源的嚴格控制，將有助于推動中國提升到更高的政治、經(jīng)濟和軍事力量的地位。2021年之前，根據(jù)一位軍事問題專家戴煦，“中國賤賣這些珍貴的稀土金屬已經(jīng)長達20年”。這不但損耗了該國最重要的戰(zhàn)略資源之一，還破壞了生態(tài)環(huán)境。為了努力保護稀土資源，中國政府已經(jīng)采取幾種方式來嚴格限制其國內(nèi)行業(yè)，包括：限制稀土出口配額，關(guān)閉小型非法的稀土企業(yè)，鞏固大型企業(yè)努力獲取更多控制，試圖將增加的規(guī)范稀土開采的環(huán)境保護法規(guī)付諸實踐，以及實行稀土儲備。許多發(fā)達國家認為這些措施對他們構(gòu)成威脅。限制稀土出口配額國際社會最關(guān)注的是，中國為了使本國產(chǎn)業(yè)的發(fā)展有足夠的資源，并收回對國內(nèi)企業(yè)的控制權(quán)，已經(jīng)采取了限制出口配額的制度措施。中國目前的出口配額限制針對鏑、鋱、銩、镥、釔元素……以及稀有的重稀土資源。出口配額的削減推動了關(guān)鍵稀土資源國際價格的上漲，包括釹元素，它是制造釹鐵硼永磁體產(chǎn)品的關(guān)鍵元素。國土資源部所實施的規(guī)定指出，2021年稀土礦的出口配額將定在82320噸，其中72300噸是輕稀土元素，其余10020噸是重稀土元素。這些數(shù)字是根據(jù)從2021年的稀土礦中所提取的控制總量以及對2021年市場因素的預(yù)測所確定的。在未來預(yù)計會有更多的削減。當然，這帶來了一種新的恐懼。中國對稀土資源的控制具有提高國外對中國稀土成品依賴性的潛力。中國政府實行各種政策進一步發(fā)展根本的稀土產(chǎn)業(yè)。中國的目標是提高稀土資源的產(chǎn)業(yè)利用率，吸引更多的國內(nèi)外稀土企業(yè)在內(nèi)蒙古成立稀土應(yīng)用領(lǐng)域的企業(yè)。趙雙連指出，內(nèi)蒙古想控制它的稀土資源，成為一個主要的工業(yè)基地。趙還表示，吸引更多國內(nèi)外企業(yè)對內(nèi)蒙古產(chǎn)生興趣的利益在于發(fā)展稀土行業(yè)。對中國來說這是一個理想情況，因為這將使政府實現(xiàn)對整個行業(yè)完全控制，并為制造業(yè)的中國公民提供更多的就業(yè)機會。然而，那些由于依賴稀土資源而被迫將他們的生產(chǎn)基地轉(zhuǎn)移到中國的國家，其國民失去工作，也許更關(guān)鍵的國防安全、專利權(quán)甚至是關(guān)鍵技術(shù)都可能會因妥協(xié)而泄露。關(guān)閉小企業(yè)、整合大型企業(yè)，獲取更多控制權(quán)中國正在努力削減并整合行業(yè)以獲得更多控制權(quán)。通過關(guān)閉違規(guī)的小型企業(yè)、整合歸并較大的生產(chǎn)商來實現(xiàn)目標。這些步驟最終會使中國的稀土資源完全掌控在政府手中，這將完全限制任何形式的民營企業(yè)間的交流。中國的稀土資源廣泛分布在全國22個省份和地區(qū)。由于稀土資源分布零散，難以對整個實行有效的全面監(jiān)管。根據(jù)一份原始資料，用于開發(fā)稀土行業(yè)2021-2021年發(fā)展規(guī)劃的修訂草案將通過“指定區(qū)域”來簡化中國稀土資源的管理。新計劃將中國的產(chǎn)業(yè)分為三大區(qū)----南、北、西。南部地區(qū)是江西、廣東、福建、湖南以及廣西；北部地區(qū)是內(nèi)蒙古和山東；西部地區(qū)是四川。從2021到2021年，輕稀土資源將成為內(nèi)蒙古和四川的重點項目。中、重稀土開采將是江西、廣東和福建的重點。工業(yè)和信息化部將通過對稀土萃取的專業(yè)檢查系統(tǒng)監(jiān)督整個行業(yè)。該系統(tǒng)將包括即興的現(xiàn)場視察和檢查以確保國家指令計劃的實施和執(zhí)行。2021年12月10日，包頭鋼鐵稀土成立內(nèi)蒙古包頭鋼鐵稀土高科技公司，是內(nèi)蒙古地區(qū)稀土高新技術(shù)領(lǐng)域的一家國有獨資企業(yè)；包頭鋼鐵稀土高科技是一個資產(chǎn)7億元（1.025億美元）由八大公司聯(lián)合經(jīng)營的企業(yè)，包括包頭華美稀土高科技，淄博寶鋼靈芝稀土高新技術(shù)，內(nèi)蒙古寶鋼和稀土開發(fā)。新的公司被認為是稀土行業(yè)的統(tǒng)一控制聲音，使用統(tǒng)一組織和生產(chǎn)安排、統(tǒng)一采購、統(tǒng)一銷售的新的商業(yè)模式。在此之前，國家已經(jīng)有了建立兩個主要稀土集團的想法，一個在北方，另一個在南方。然而，兩個集團之間的利益難以平衡，這個計劃沒有能夠?qū)崿F(xiàn)。有一個主要企業(yè)負責(zé)整個行業(yè)的最大優(yōu)勢在于能更容易地實現(xiàn)對統(tǒng)一定價的控制。中心企業(yè)也要便于將該地區(qū)變成稀土生產(chǎn)商品區(qū)。保護環(huán)境的新法規(guī)中國沒有稀土產(chǎn)業(yè)污染物的排放標準。稀土資源開采背后的環(huán)境問題是一個巨大的關(guān)注點。西部礦業(yè)的努力與如今在中國的所見情況之間的差異是驚人的。意識到這個問題，當?shù)卣ハ蛏蠄蟾娌⑴ふ腋纳七@種狀況的方式。2021年7月，環(huán)保部發(fā)布了“稀土工業(yè)污染物排放標準”。這些新標準將很有希望能“淘汰落后生產(chǎn)能力，促進中國稀土產(chǎn)業(yè)的升級換代”。環(huán)保部為六種大氣污染物----二氧化硫，污染顆粒，氟，氯，氯化氫以及三氧化硫設(shè)立了排放標準。為14種水污染物包括氟化物，總磷量，總碳量，總氮量以及氨氮設(shè)置了排放標準。在有許多湖泊的南部地區(qū)，實施的新標準對氨氮排放濃度設(shè)置了特別的排放限值。這些新標準分為兩部分，一部分為現(xiàn)有企業(yè)，另外則為新建企業(yè)。根據(jù)新標準，稀土企業(yè)要增加環(huán)保投資，提高生產(chǎn)技術(shù)和成本。實行稀土儲備中國的“稀土之父”徐光憲一直推動中國建立稀土戰(zhàn)略儲備。據(jù)徐說，“我們（中國）必須建立一個稀土資源和釷（能源釷）的儲備制度，支持國內(nèi)主要的生產(chǎn)者如寶鋼，五礦集團和江西銅實施資源儲備”。據(jù)徐說，日本和韓國利用2021年以前中國未開始限制生產(chǎn)時低