英語語言學(xué)概論-整理

(完整版)英語語言學(xué)概論--整理(完整版)英語語言學(xué)概論--整理PAGEPAGE13(完整版)英語語言學(xué)概論--整理Chapter1Language語言Designfeature（識(shí)別特征）referstothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication。Productivity（能產(chǎn)性）referstotheabilitythatpeoplehaveinmakingandcomprehendingindefinitelylargequantitiesofsentencesintheirnativelanguage。arbitrariness（任意性)Arbitrarinessreferstothephenomenonthatthereisnomotivatedrelationshipbetweenalinguisticformanditsmeaning.symbol（符號(hào)）Symbolreferstosomethingsuchasanobject,word，orsoundthatrepresentssomethingelsebyassociationorconvention.discreteness(離散性）Discretenessreferstothephenomenonthatthesoundsinalanguagearemeaningfullydistinct.displacement(不受時(shí)空限制的特性)Displacementreferstothefactthathumanlanguagecanbeusedtotalkaboutthingsthatarenotintheimmediatesituationsofitsusers。dualityofstructure（結(jié)構(gòu)二重性)Theorganizationoflanguageintotwolevels,oneofsounds,theotherofmeaning,isknownasdualityofstructure.culturetransmission（文化傳播）Culturetransmissionreferstothefactthatlanguageispassedonfromonegenerationtothenextthroughteachingandlearning，ratherthanbyerchangeability(互換性）Interchangeabilitymeansthatanyhumanbeingcanbebothaproducerandareceiverofmessages?！颳hatislanguage?Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication。Thisdefinitionhascapturedthemainfeaturesoflanguage。First，languageisasystem。Second,languageisarbitraryinthesense.Thethirdfeatureoflanguageissymbolicnature。 ★Whatarethedesignfeaturesoflanguage?Languagehassevendesignfeaturesasfollowing:1）Productivity。2)Discreteness。3)Displacement4)Arbitrariness。5）Culturaltransmission6）Dualityofstructure.7)Interchangeability.Whydowesaylanguageisasystem?Becauseelementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules，andeverylanguagecontainsasetofrules。Bysystem,therecurringpatternsorarrangementsortheparticularwaysordesignsinwhichalanguageoperates.Andthesounds,thewordsandthesentencesareusedinfixedpatternsthatspeakerofalanguagecanunderstandeachother.★（Functionoflanguage.)AccordingtoHalliday,whataretheinitialfunctionsofchildren’slanguage?Andwhatarethethreefunctionalcomponentsofadultlanguage？Hallidayusesthefollowingtermstorefertotheinitialfunctionsofchildren’slanguage：1)Instrumentalfunction。工具功能2)Regulatoryfunction.調(diào)節(jié)功能3）Representationalfunction。表現(xiàn)功能4）Interactionalfunction。互動(dòng)功能5）Personalfunction。自指性功能6)Heuristicfunction。啟發(fā)功能［osbQtq`kf`h］7)Imaginativefunction.想象功能Adultlanguagehasthreefunctionalcomponentsasfollowing：1）Interpersonalcomponents.人際2)Ideationalcomponents.概念3）Textualcomponents.語篇

Chapter2Linguistics語言學(xué)generallinguisticsanddescriptivelinguistics（普通語言學(xué)與描寫語言學(xué))Theformerdealswithlanguageingeneralwhereasthelatterisconcernedwithoneparticularlanguage。synchroniclinguisticsanddiachroniclinguistics（共時(shí)語言學(xué)與歷時(shí)語言學(xué))Diachroniclinguisticstracesthehistoricaldevelopmentofthelanguageandrecordsthechangesthathavetakenplaceinitbetweensuccessivepointsintime.Andsynchroniclinguisticspresentsanaccountoflanguageasitisatsomeparticularpointintime.theoreticallinguisticsandappliedlinguistics（理論語言學(xué)與應(yīng)用語言學(xué))Theformercopeswithlanguageswithaviewtoestablishingatheoryoftheirstructuresandfunctionswhereasthelatterisconcernedwiththeapplicationoftheconceptsandfindingsoflinguisticstoallsortsofpracticaltasks.microlinguisticsandmacrolinguistics（微觀語言學(xué)與宏觀語言學(xué))Theformerstudiesonlythestructureoflanguagesystemwhereasthelatterdealswitheverythingthatisrelatedtolanguages.langueandparole（語言與言語）Theformerreferstotheabstractlinguisticssystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunitywhereasthelatterreferstotheconcreteactofspeakinginactualsituationbyanindividualpetenceandperformance(語言能力與語言運(yùn)用)Theformerisone'sknowledgeofallthelinguisticregulationsystemswhereasthelatteristheuseoflanguageinconcretesituation。speechandwriting（口頭語與書面語)Speechisthespokenformoflanguagewhereaswritingiswrittencodes,giveslanguagenewscope。linguisticsbehaviorpotentialandactuallinguisticbehavior(語言行為潛勢(shì)與實(shí)際語言行為)Peopleactuallysaysonacertainoccasiontoacertainpersonisactuallinguisticsbehavior。Andeachofpossiblelinguisticitemsthathecouldhavesaidislinguisticbehaviorpotential。syntagmaticrelationandparadigmaticrelation(橫組合關(guān)系與縱聚合關(guān)系)Theformerdescribesthehorizontaldimensionofalanguagewhilethelatterdescribestheverticaldimensionofalanguage.verbalcommunicationandnon—verbalcommunication(言語交際與非言語交際）Usualuseoflanguageasameansoftransmittinginformationiscalledverbalcommunication.Thewaysweconveymeaningwithoutusinglanguageiscallednon-verbalcommunication.★HowdoesJohnLyonsclassifylinguistics？AccordingtoJohnLyons，thefieldoflinguisticsasawholecanbedividedintoseveralsubfieldsasfollowing:1)Generallinguisticsanddescriptivelinguistics.2）Synchroniclinguisticsanddiachroniclinguistics.3）Theoreticallinguisticsandappliedlinguistics。4）Microlinguisticsandmacrolinguistics。Explainthethreeprinciplesbywhichthelinguistisguided:consistency,adequacyandsimplicity。1)Consistencymeansthatthereshouldbenocontradictionsbetweendifferentpartsofthetheoryandthedescription.2）Adequacymeansthatthetheorymustbebroadenoughinscopetooffersignificantgeneralizations.3)Simplicityrequiresustobeasbriefandeconomicaspossible?！颳hatarethesub—branchesoflinguisticswithinthelanguagesystem？Withinthelanguagesystemtherearesixsub-branchesasfollowing:1)Phonetics。語音學(xué)isastudyofspeechsoundsofallhumanlanguages.2)Phonology。音位學(xué)studiesaboutthesoundsandsoundpatternsofaspeaker'snativelanguage.3)Morphology.形態(tài)學(xué)studiesabouthowawordisformed.4）Syntax.句法學(xué)studiesaboutwhetherasentenceisgrammaticalornot。5）Semantics。語義學(xué)studiesaboutthemeaningoflanguage,includingmeaningofwordsandmeaningofsentences.6）Pragmatics。語用學(xué)★Thescopeoflanguage：Linguisticsisreferredtoasascientificstudyoflanguage.★Thescientificprocessoflinguisticstudy:Itinvolvesfourstages：collectingdata,formingahypothesis,testingthehypothesisanddrawingconclusions.

Chapter3Phonetics語音學(xué)articulatoryphonetics(發(fā)音語音學(xué))Thestudyofhowspeechorgansproducethesoundsiscalledarticulatoryphonetics.acousticphonetics(聲學(xué)語音學(xué))Thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesandofthetransmissionofspeechsoundsiscalledacousticphonetics。auditoryphonetics（聽覺語音學(xué)）Thestudyofthewayhearersperceivespeechsoundsiscalledauditoryphonetics。consonant（輔音）Consonantisaspeechsoundwheretheairformthelanguageiseithercompletelyblocked,orpartiallyblocked，orwheretheopeningbetweenthespeechorgansissonarrowthattheairescapeswithaudiblefriction.vowel（元音)isdefinedasaspeechsoundinwhichtheairfromthelungsisnotblockedinanywayandispronouncedwithvocal—cordvibration。bilabials(雙唇音）Bilabialsmeansthatconsonantsforwhichtheflowofairisstoppedorrestrictedbythetwolips.[p］[b］[m]［w]affricates（塞擦音)Thesoundproducedbystoppingtheairstreamandthenimmediatelyreleasingitslowlyiscalledaffricates.[tX]［dY］[tr］［dr］glottis(聲門)Glottisisthespacebetweenthevocalcords.roundedvowel(圓唇元音)Roundedvowelisdefinedasthevowelsoundpronouncedbythelipsformingacircularopening.[u：]［u]［OB]［O］diphthongs（雙元音）Diphthongsareproducedbymovingfromonevowelpositiontoanotherthroughinterveningpositions.[ei］[ai][Oi][Qu］[au］triphthongs(三合元音)Triphthongsarethosewhichareproducedbymovingfromonevowelpositiontoanotherandthenrapidlyandcontinuouslytoathirdone。[eiQ]［aiQ］［OiQ］[QuQ］[auQ]laxvowels(松元音)Accordingtodistinctionoflongandshortvowels，vowelsareclassifiedtensevowelsandlaxvowels。Allthelongvowelsaretensevowelsbutoftheshortvowels，［e］isatensevowelaswell，andtherestshortvowelsarelaxvowels。1?！颒owareconsonantsclassifiedintermsofdifferentcriteria？TheconsonantsinEnglishcanbedescribedintermsoffourdimensions.Thepositionofthesoftpalate。Thepresenceortheabsenceofvocal-cordvibration.Theplaceofarticulation.Themannerofarticulation?！颒owarevowelsclassifiedintermsofdifferentcriteria？Vowelsoundsaredifferentiatedbyanumberoffactors。ThestateofthevelumThepositionofthetongue.Theopennessofthemouth。Theshapeofthelips。Thelengthofthevowels.Thetensionofthemusclesatpharynx?！颳hatarethethreesub-branchesofphonetics？Howdotheydifferfromeachother？Phoneticshasthreesub-branchesasfollowing：Articulatoryphoneticsisthestudyofhowspeechorgansproducethesoundsiscalledarticulatoryphonetics.Acousticphoneticsisthestudyofthephysicalpropertiesandofthetransmissionofspeechsoundsiscalledacousticphonetics.Auditoryphoneticsisthestudyofthewayhearersperceivespeechsoundsiscalledauditoryphonetics?！颳hatarethecommonlyusedphoneticfeaturesforconsonantsandvowelsrespectively？I。Thefrequentlyusedphoneticfeaturesforconsonantsincludethefollowing：Voiced。Nasal.Consonantal。Vocalic。Continuant.Anterior。Coronal。Aspirated。II。Themostcommonphoneticfeaturesforvowelsincludethefollowing:High.Low。Front.Back.Rounded.Tense。

Chapter4Phonology音位學(xué)phonemes(音位)Phonemesareminimaldistinctiveunitsinthesoundsystemofalanguage.allophones(音位變體）Allophonesarethephoneticvariantsandrealizationsofaparticularphoneme.phones(單音)Thesmallestidentifiablephoneticunitfoundinastreamofspeechiscalledaphone。minimalpair（最小對(duì)立體)Minimalpairmeanswordswhichdifferfromeachotheronlybyonesound.contrastivedistribution（對(duì)比分布)Iftwoormoresoundscanoccurinthesameenvironmentandthesubstitutionofonesoundforanotherbringsaboutachangeofmeaning,theyaresaidtobeincontrastiveplementarydistribution（互補(bǔ)分布)Iftwoormoresoundsneverappearinthesameenvironment,thentheyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.freevariation(自由變異)Whentwosoundscanappearinthesameenvironmentandthesubstitutionofonefortheotherdoesnotcauseanychangeinmeaning，thentheyaresaidtobeinfreevariation。distinctivefeatures（區(qū)別性特征）Adistinctivefeatureisafeaturewhichdistinguishesonephonemefromanother.suprasegmentalfeatures(超切分特征）Thedistinctive(phonological)featureswhichapplytogroupslargerthanthesinglesegmentareknownassuprasegmentalfeatures.tonelanguages（聲調(diào)語言)Tonelanguagesarethosewhichusepitchtocontrastmeaningatwordonationlanguages(語調(diào)語言）Intonationlanguagesarethosewhichusepitchtodistinguishmeaningatphraselevelorsentencelevel.juncture（連音)Juncturereferstothephoneticboundaryfeatureswhichmaydemarcategrammaticalunits.1?！颳hatarethedifferencesbetweenEnglishphoneticsandEnglishphonology?Phoneticsisthestudyoftheproduction,perception,andphysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,whilephonologyattemptstoaccountforhowtheyarecombined,organized,andconveymeaninginparticularlanguages。Phoneticsisthestudyoftheactualsoundswhilephonologyisconcernedwithamoreabstractdescriptionofspeechsoundsandtriestodescribetheregularitiesofsoundpatterns。Giveexamplestoillustratetherelationshipbetweenphonemes,phonesandallophones。Whenwehear［pit]，[tip],[spit］,etc，thesimilarphoneswehaveheardare/p/。And/p/and/b/areseparatephonemesinEnglish,while[ph]and［p］areallophones.Howcanwedecideaminimalpairoraminimalset?Aminimalpairshouldmeetthreeconditions:Thetwoformsaredifferentinmeaning.Thetwoformsaredifferentinonesoundsegment.Thedifferentsoundsoccurinthesamepositionofthetwostrings.★Useexamplestoexplainthethreetypesofdistribution。Contrastivedistribution.Sounds[m]inmetand[n]innetareincontrastivedistributionbecausesubstituting［m]for[n］willresultinachangeofmeaning。Complementarydistribution.Theaspiratedplosive［ph]andtheunaspiratedplosive[p]areincomplementarydistributionbecausetheformeroccurseitherinitiallyinawordorinitiallyinastressedsyllablewhilethelatterneveroccursinsuchenvironments.Freevariation.InEnglish,theword“direct"maybepronounceintwoways：/di’rekt/and/dia’rekt/，andthetwodifferentsounds/i/and/ai/canbesaidtobeinfreevariation。What’sthedifferencebetweensegmentalfeaturesandsuprasegmentalfeatures?WhatarethesuprasegmentalfeaturesinEnglish?I。1)Distinctivefeatures，whichareusedtodistinguishonephonemefromanotherandthushaveeffectononesoundsegment，arereferredtoassegmentalfeatures.2)Thedistinctive(phonological）featureswhichapplytogroupslargerthanthesinglesegmentareknownassuprasegmentalfeatures.3）Suprasegmentalfeaturesmayhaveeffectonmorethanonesoundsegment。Theymayapplytoastringofseveralsounds.II。Themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,tone,intonationandjuncture。What’sthedifferencebetweentonelanguagesandintonationlanguage?Tonelanguagesarethosewhichusepitchtocontrastmeaningatwordlevelwhileintonationlanguagesarethosewhichusepitchtodistinguishmeaningatphraselevelorsentencelevel★What’sthedifferencebetweenphonetictranscriptionsandphonemictranscriptions？Theformerwasmeanttosymbolizeallpossiblespeechsounds，includingeventhemostminuteshadesofpronunciation，whilethelatterwasintendedtoindicateonlythosesoundscapableofdistinguishingonewordfromanotherinagivenlanguage。

Chapter5Morphology形態(tài)學(xué)morphemes（語素)Morphemesaretheminimalmeaningfulunitsinthegrammaticalsystemofalanguage。allomorphs(語素變體）Allomorphsaretherealizationsofaparticularmorpheme。morphs（形素)Morphsaretherealizationsofmorphemesingeneralandaretheactualformsusedtorealizemorphemes.roots（詞根)Rootsisdefinedasthemostimportantpartofawordthatcarriestheprincipalmeaning.affixes(詞綴）Affixesaremorphemesthatlexicallydependonrootsanddonotconveythefundamentalmeaningofwords.freemorphemes(自由語素）Freemorphemesarethosewhichcanexistasindividualwords.boundmorphemes（粘著語素）Boundmorphemesarethosewhichcannotoccurontheirownasseparatewords.inflectionalaffixes（屈折詞綴)refertoaffixesthatservetoindicategrammaticalrelations，butdonotchangeitspartofspeech。derivationalaffixes(派生詞綴）refertoaffixesthatareaddedtowordsinordertochangeitsgrammaticalcategoryoritsmeaning.emptymorph（空語子)Emptymorphmeansamorphwhichhasformbutnomeaning。zeromorph(零語子）Zeromorphreferstoamorphwhichhasmeaningbutnoform.ICAnalysis（直接成分分析)ICanalysisistheanalysistoanalyzealinguisticexpression(bothawordandasentence）intoahierarchicallydefinedseriesofconstituents。immediateconstituents（直接成分）Aimmediateconstituentisanyoneofthelargestgrammaticalunitsthatconstituteaconstruction。Immediateconstituentsareoftenfurtherreducible。ultimateconstituents（最后成分）Ultimateconstituentsarethosegrammaticallyirreducibleunitsthatconstituteconstructions.morphologicalrules(形態(tài)學(xué)規(guī)則)Theprinciplesthatdeterminehowmorphemesarecombinedintonewwordsaresaidtobemorphologicalrules.word-formationprocess（構(gòu)詞法）Word-formationprocessmeantherule—governedprocessesofformingnewwordsonthebasisofalreadyexistinglinguisticresources。1.★WhatisICAnalysis？ICanalysisistheanalysistoanalyzealinguisticexpression（bothawordandasentence)intoahierarchicallydefinedseriesofconstituents.Howaremorphemesclassified？Semanticallyspeaking,morphemesaregroupedintotwocategories:rootmorphemesandaffixationalmorphemes。Structurallyspeaking,theyaredividedintotwotypes:freemorphemesandboundmorphemes.★Explaintheinterrelationsbetweensemanticandstructuralclassificationsofmorphemes。Allfreemorphemesarerootsbutnotallrootsarefreemorphemes.Allaffixesareboundmorphemes,butnotallboundmorphemesareaffixes。What’sthedifferencebetweenanemptymorphandazeromorph？Emptymorphmeansamorphthathasformbutnomeaning.Zeromorphreferstoamorphthathasmeaningbutnoform。Explainthedifferencesbetweeninflectionalandderivationalaffixesintermofbothfunctionandposition.Functionally：Inflectionalaffixessevertomarkgrammaticalrelationsandnevercreatenewwordswhilederivationalaffixescancreatenewwords.Inflectionalaffixesdonotcauseachangeingrammaticalclasswhilederivationalaffixesveryoftenbutnotalwayscauseachangeingrammaticalclass.Intermofposition：Inflectionalaffixesaresuffixeswhilederivationalaffixescanbesuffixesorprefixes.Inflectionalaffixesarealwaysafterderivationalaffixesifbotharepresent。Andderivationalaffixesarealwaysbeforeinflectionalsuffixesifbotharepresent。Whataremorphologicalrules?Giveatleastfourruleswithexamples。Theprinciplesthatdeterminehowmorphemesarecombinedintonewwordsaresaidtobemorphologicalrules.Forexample：un-+adj.-〉adj.Adj./n。+—ify—>v.V。+—able-〉adj.Adj.+—ly—>adv。

Chapter6Syntax句法學(xué)syntagmaticrelations(橫組關(guān)系)refertotherelationshipsbetweenconstituentsinaconstruction。paradigmaticrelations（縱聚合關(guān)系)refertotherelationsbetweenthelinguisticelementswithinasentenceandthoseoutsidethesentence。hierarchicalrelations(等級(jí)關(guān)系)refertorelationshipsbetweenanyclassificationoflinguisticunitswhichrecognizesaseriesofsuccessivelysubordinatelevels。ICAnalysis（直接成分分析)isakindofgrammaticalanalysis,whichmakemajordivisionsatanylevelwithinasyntacticconstruction.labeledICAnalysis(標(biāo)記法直接成分分析)isakindofgrammaticalanalysis，whichmakemajordivisionsatanylevelwithinasyntacticconstructionandlabeleachconstituent。phrasemarkers（短語標(biāo)記法)isakindofgrammaticalanalysis，whichmakemajordivisionsatanylevelwithinasyntacticconstruction,andlabeleachconstituentwhileremoveallthelinguisticforms.labeledbracketing（方括號(hào)標(biāo)記法)isakindofgrammaticalanalysis，whichisappliedinrepresentingthehierarchicalstructureofsentencesbyusingbrackets。constituency(成分關(guān)系）dependency(依存關(guān)系）surfacestructures(表層結(jié)構(gòu))referstothementalrepresentationofalinguisticexpression,derivedfromdeepstructureby\o"Transformationalgrammar"transformationalrules.deepstructures(深層結(jié)構(gòu))deepstructureofalinguistic\o"Expression"expressionisatheoreticalconstructthatseekstounifyseveralrelatedstructures.phrasestructurerules（短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則)areawaytodescribeagivenlanguage's\o"Syntax"syntax.Theyareusedtobreakanatural\o"Language"languagesentencedownintoitsconstituentparts.transformationalrules（轉(zhuǎn)換規(guī)則）structuralambiguity(結(jié)構(gòu)歧義）Whatarethedifferencesbetweensurfacestructureanddeepstructure?Theyaredifferentfromeachotherinfouraspects:Surfacestructurescorresponddirectlytothelineararrangementsofsentenceswhiledeepstructurescorrespondtothemeaningfulgroupingofsentences。Surfacestructuresaremoreconcretewhiledeepstructuresaremoreabstract.Surfacestructuresgivetheformsofsentenceswhereasdeepstructuresgivethemeaningsofsentences。Surfacestructuresarepronounceablebutdeepstructuresarenot.IllustratethedifferencesbetweenPSrulesandT—rules.1）PSrulesfrequentlyappliedingeneratingdeepstructures。2)T-rulesareusedtotransformdeepstructureintosurfacestructures。What’stheorderofgeneratingsentences?Dowestartwithsurfacestructuresorwithdeepstructures？Howdifferentlyaretheygenerated？Togenerateasentence，wealwaysstartwithitsdeepstructure，andthentransformitintoitscorrespondingsurfacestructure。Deepstructuresaregeneratedbyphrasestructurerules(PSrules）whilesurfacestructuresarederivedfromtheirdeepstructuresbytransformationalrules（T-rules).What'sthedifferencebetweenacompulsoryconstituentandanoptionalone？Optionalconstituentsmaybepresentorabsentwhilecompulsoryconstituentsmustbepresent.Whatarethethreesyntacticrelations?Illustratethemwithexamples。1）Syntagmaticrelations2)Paradigmaticrelations.3）Hierarchicalrelations。

Chapter7Semantics語義學(xué)Lexicalsemantics(詞匯語義學(xué)）isdefinedasthestudyofwordmeaninginlanguage。Sense(意義）referstotheinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Reference(所指）meanswhatalinguisticformreferstointherealworld。Concept(概念)istheresultofhumancognition，reflectingtheobjectiveworldinthehumanmind。Denotation(外延)isdefinedastheconstant,abstract，andbasicmeaningofalinguisticexpressionindependentofcontextandsituation。Connotation(內(nèi)涵）referstotheemotionalassociationswhicharesuggestedby，orarepartofthemeaningof,alinguisticunit。Componentialanalysis(成分分析法）isthewaytodecomposethemeaningofawordintoitscomponents。Semanticfield（語義場(chǎng)）Thevocabularyofalanguageisnotsimplyalistingofindependentitems,butisorganizedintoareas,withinwhichwordsinterrelateanddefineeachotherinvariousways。Theareasaresemanticfields.Hyponymy(上下義關(guān)系)referstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Synonymy（同義關(guān)系）referstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Antonymy(反義關(guān)系）referstotheoppositenessofmeaning。Lexicalambiguity（詞匯歧義)Polysemy（多義性)referstothefactthatthesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Homonymy(同音(同形）異義關(guān)系）referstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform。Sentencesemantics(句子語義學(xué)）referstothestudyofsentencemeaninginlanguage.What'sthecriterionofJohnLyonsinclassifyingsemanticsintoitssub-branches？Andhowdoesheclassifysemantics?Intermsofwhetheritfallswithinthescopeoflinguistics，JohnLyonsdistinguishesbetweenlinguisticsemanticsandnon-linguisticsemantics.AccordingJohnLyons，semanticsisoneofthesub-branchesoflinguistics；itisgenerallydefinedasthestudyofmeaning.Whataretheessentialfactorsfordeterminingsentencemeaning?1）Object,2）concept,3)symbol，4)user,5)context。Whatisthedifferencebetweenthetheoryofcomponentialanalysisandthetheoryofsemantictheoryindefiningmeaningofwords?Whatarethesenserelationsbetweensentences？S1issynonymouswithS2。S1entailsS2。S1contradictsS2.S1presupposesS2.S1isatautology，andthereforeinvariablytrue。S1isacontradiction，andthereforeinvariablyfalse。S1issemanticallyanomalous.

Chapter8Pragmatics語用學(xué)Speechacttheory（言語行為理論)Cooperativeprincipleanditsmaxims(合作原則及其準(zhǔn)則)Politenessprincipleanditsmaxims（禮貌原則及其準(zhǔn)則)Conversationalimplicature（會(huì)話含義)Indirectspeechact（間接言語行為)Pragmaticpresupposition（語用學(xué)預(yù)設(shè)）Relevancetheory（關(guān)聯(lián)理論)Illocutionaryact(言外行為）(Horn’s)Q-PrincipleandR-PrinciplePerfrmativeverbs（施為句動(dòng)詞)Makecommentsonthedifferentdefinitionsofpragmatics.Whatarethemaintypesofdeixis？Explainthestatement：contextissoindispensableinfullyunderstandinginterpretingthespeaker’smeaning.HowareAustin'sandSearle’sspeechacttheoriesrelatedtoeachother?What’stherelationshipbetweenCPandPP?WhatdoyouknowaboutpresuppositiontriggersinEnglish？Explainthembrieflywithexamples。Whatisostensive-referentialcommunication？Explaintheobviouspresuppositionofspeakerwhosayeachofthefollowing:Whendidyoustopbeatingyourwife？WheredidTombuythewatch？Yourcarisbroken。Whatdoyouthinkofthefollowingstatement？“Tomparticipatedinspreadingrumors”entails“Tomengagedinspreadingrumors”.

Chapter9話語分析text（語篇）=discourse語篇是指實(shí)際使用的語言單位，是一次交際過程中的一系列連續(xù)的話段或句子所構(gòu)成的語言整體。它可以是對(duì)話，也可以是獨(dú)白，它包括書面語，也包括口語discourse（話語）Discourseisusedinlinguisticstorefertoanypassage，spokenorwritten，ofwhateverlength。context(語境）Linguisticcontextreferstothelanguagethatsurroundsoraccompaniesthepieceofutteranceordiscourseinquestion。pre—sequencesPre—sequencereferstothekindofsequencesthatareusedtosetupsomespecificpotentialactions.adjacencypairs（毗鄰對(duì))Anadjacencypairisaunitofconversationthatcontainsanexchangeofoneturneachbytwospeakers。turn-taking(話輪轉(zhuǎn)換)Turn-takingreferstothewayinwhichparticipantsofaconversationtaketurnsatspeaking.reference(所指)Referencesignalstothereaderwhatkindofinformationistoberetrieved。substitution(替代)Substitutionmeansusinganotherwordtotaketheplaceofthethingthatisbeingdiscussed.ellipsis(省略）Ellipsisistheabsenceofspecificinformationinthetext,suchomissioncanbeunderstoodfromprecedinginformationinthetext.conjunction（連詞)aconjunctionisapartofspeechthatconnectstwowords,phrasesorclausestogether.reiteration（復(fù)現(xiàn)）Reiterationistherepetitionofalexicaliteminthecontextofreference。collocation（搭配)Collocationisthelexicalcohesionthatisachievedthroughtheassociationoflexicalitemsthatregularlyco-occur.Whatistherelationshipbetweendiscourseanalysisandconversationalanalysis?會(huì)話分析的目的是分析一次自然會(huì)話的語言學(xué)特征和會(huì)話在日常生活中的用途；而語篇分析是對(duì)口頭語和書面語中的句子是如何形成較大的意義單位，如段落、會(huì)話等的研究。Howdoescriticaldiscourseanalysisdifferfrompositivediscourseanalysis?ThepurposeofCDAistodisclosetheideologyhiddeninanypublicdiscourseanditsinfluenceondiscourseaswellasthecounteractiveinfluencethediscourseexertsonideology。OnecrucialdifferenceisthatCDAaimstoprovideacriticaldimensioninitstheoreticalanddescriptiveaccountsoftexts。TheaimofPDAistomakethecriticalthinkingdevelopmorehopefuldiscourses：peace，reconciliation，learningandalteration.What’sthedifferencebetweencohesionandcoherence?Cohesionisthemeanswherebyelementsthatarestructurallyunrelatedtooneanotherarelinkedtogether,throughthedependenceofoneontheotherforitsinterpretation.Coherencemeansnaturalorreasonableconnection。Inlanguagecommunication，itreferstoalogical，orderlyandaestheticalrelationshipbetweenparts，inspeech，writing，orargument.Explainthediffer