知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移的基本理論

1、第二組期末論文第一部分知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移的基本理論趙春宏引言隨著知識(shí)經(jīng)濟(jì)的到來，知識(shí)成為最重要的生產(chǎn)要素。知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移作為知識(shí)管 理的一部分，已成為企業(yè)取得競爭優(yōu)勢的基礎(chǔ)，而知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移的效果與效率直接影 響一個(gè)組織的生存與發(fā)展。因此，研究知識(shí)如何在不同的個(gè)體、團(tuán)隊(duì)和組織之間 流動(dòng)轉(zhuǎn)移，成為當(dāng)前知識(shí)管理研究領(lǐng)域的一個(gè)熱點(diǎn)。本文試從知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移的概念、 分類、過程和影響因素這四個(gè)方面，總結(jié)一些學(xué)者關(guān)于知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移研究的主要觀點(diǎn)， 重點(diǎn)梳理一些學(xué)者在知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移領(lǐng)域所取得的研究成果。一、知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移的概念1977年Teece1提出了知識(shí)*移的思想,認(rèn)為企業(yè)通過技術(shù)的國際轉(zhuǎn)移,能 積累起大量跨國界應(yīng)用的知識(shí)。在此后的研究中，知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移

2、逐漸成為了知識(shí)管理 的一個(gè)熱點(diǎn)，有許多學(xué)者都對(duì)知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移做出了解釋，并常常與知識(shí)共享、知識(shí)擴(kuò)散等概念相關(guān)聯(lián)。Jensen和Meckling 2解釋知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移時(shí)認(rèn)為,知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移包括存儲(chǔ) 知識(shí)、處理知識(shí)的能力和知識(shí)輸入、輸出大腦的途徑。Szulanski3認(rèn)為知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移是指知識(shí)跨組織或個(gè)體邊界的有目的、有計(jì)劃的知識(shí)共享；這里， Szulanski把 知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移視為一種特殊的知識(shí)共享機(jī)制。Davenport和Prusak4認(rèn)為知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移包括知識(shí)傳遞(擴(kuò)散)和知識(shí)吸收(應(yīng)用)兩個(gè)過程；其中，接收知識(shí)意味著對(duì)信息的 充分理解并能夠據(jù)此采取行動(dòng)。如果知識(shí)沒有被吸收，那么這一知識(shí)就不能說已 經(jīng)轉(zhuǎn)移了 ；提供知識(shí)并不代表

3、轉(zhuǎn)移知識(shí)。Holtham指出知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移是一種溝通的 過程，知識(shí)不像商品可以自由傳遞，學(xué)習(xí)知識(shí)的時(shí)候，即知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移時(shí)，必須有 重建的行為，而且要具備應(yīng)有知識(shí)，才能完成轉(zhuǎn)移。由此，可以看出，知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移 涉及到知識(shí)發(fā)送方和知識(shí)接收方兩個(gè)主體，客體是知識(shí)，客觀條件是傳輸?shù)耐?徑，目標(biāo)是能夠利用知識(shí)來指導(dǎo)行為。從以上學(xué)者對(duì)知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移(Knowledge Transfei)的理解，我們有必要對(duì)知識(shí)共 享(Sharing)、知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移(Transfer)、知識(shí)擴(kuò)散(Dissemination) 這三個(gè)概念做一 區(qū)分：Davenport認(rèn)為，知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移=知識(shí)擴(kuò)散+知識(shí)吸收；知識(shí)擴(kuò)散只涉及到知識(shí) 提供者發(fā)送知識(shí)，而未包括接

4、收者對(duì)知識(shí)的吸收和應(yīng)用。另外，知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移比較強(qiáng)調(diào)由組織主導(dǎo)、較正式、有明確知識(shí)目標(biāo)，以及提供者與接受者有明確的流動(dòng)方 向類型的知識(shí)流動(dòng)；而知識(shí)共享比較強(qiáng)調(diào)非正式、 水平式、自由式和個(gè)人平等的 學(xué)習(xí)。二、知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移的分類從所轉(zhuǎn)移知識(shí)的類型，將知識(shí)劃分為顯性知識(shí)和隱性知識(shí)， 知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移可分為 隱性轉(zhuǎn)移和顯性轉(zhuǎn)移。根據(jù)知識(shí)存在的層次，可以分為個(gè)體、團(tuán)隊(duì)和組織三個(gè)層 次，知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移就發(fā)生在個(gè)體與團(tuán)隊(duì)之間、個(gè)體與組織之間、團(tuán)隊(duì)與組織之間、組 織與組織之間以及個(gè)體之間、團(tuán)體之間、組織之間。Nancy M. Dixon6對(duì)團(tuán)隊(duì)與團(tuán)隊(duì)之間的共有知識(shí)的轉(zhuǎn)移做了分類。Nancy M. Dixon首先對(duì)共有知識(shí)做了定義：即

5、員工從完成公司的任務(wù)中學(xué)到的知識(shí)，共有知識(shí)是know-hoW勺知識(shí)，而不是從學(xué)校學(xué)到“ know what”知識(shí)，然后利用誰是預(yù)期的知識(shí)接受者、任務(wù)的性 質(zhì)、被轉(zhuǎn)移知識(shí)的類型等標(biāo)準(zhǔn)提出了知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移的五種類型：連續(xù)轉(zhuǎn)移(SerialTransfer)、近轉(zhuǎn)移(Near Transfer)、遠(yuǎn)轉(zhuǎn)移(Far Transfei) 戰(zhàn)略轉(zhuǎn)移(Strategic Transfer) 專家轉(zhuǎn)移(Expert Transfer) 0這五種類型的區(qū)分如 表1 :表1、五種類型的知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移連續(xù)轉(zhuǎn)移近轉(zhuǎn)移遠(yuǎn)轉(zhuǎn)移戰(zhàn)略轉(zhuǎn)移專家轉(zhuǎn)移定義一個(gè)團(tuán)隊(duì)從某一背 景下完成任務(wù)中所得到的知識(shí)，被轉(zhuǎn)移 到團(tuán)隊(duì)下一次在不 同背景下完成同樣任

6、務(wù)中一個(gè)團(tuán)隊(duì)長期從 事的重復(fù)性工作 中獲得的顯形知 識(shí)，被其他從事非 正常類似的工作團(tuán)隊(duì)再次使用轉(zhuǎn)移一個(gè)團(tuán)隊(duì)在 從事一種非常規(guī) 的工作時(shí)獲得的隱形知識(shí)，讓組織 內(nèi)從事類似工作 的別的團(tuán)隊(duì)得到完成一項(xiàng)不經(jīng) 常發(fā)生，但對(duì)整個(gè)組織非常重 要的戰(zhàn)略任務(wù) 所需要的組織的集體知識(shí)一個(gè)遇到超 出知識(shí)范圍 技術(shù)問題的 團(tuán)隊(duì)，在組織 中尋求他人經(jīng)驗(yàn)任務(wù)和 背景相 似性知識(shí)接受方(也是知 識(shí)發(fā)送方)在新背景 下完成相似的任務(wù)知識(shí)接受方所執(zhí) 行的任務(wù)和發(fā)送 方執(zhí)行的任務(wù)相 似，且是在相似背 景下接受方所從事的工作和發(fā)送方的工作性質(zhì)相似，但 背景不同接受方執(zhí)行一 項(xiàng)影響整個(gè)組 織的任務(wù)，與發(fā)送方背景不同接受方與發(fā) 送

7、方執(zhí)行不 同的任務(wù)，但 有相似的背景任務(wù)的 性質(zhì)經(jīng)常性，非常規(guī)經(jīng)常性，常規(guī)經(jīng)常性，非常規(guī)不經(jīng)常發(fā)生，非 常規(guī)常規(guī)，但很少 發(fā)生知識(shí)的 類型隱形知識(shí)，顯形知識(shí)顯形知識(shí)隱形知識(shí)隱形知識(shí)，顯形 知識(shí)顯形知識(shí)舉例一個(gè)發(fā)電機(jī)更換團(tuán) 隊(duì)更換化工廠的發(fā) 電機(jī)。當(dāng)更換精煉廠 的發(fā)電機(jī)時(shí)，團(tuán)隊(duì)使用來自化工廠工作 所形成的知識(shí)亞特蘭大一家汽 車總裝廠的一個(gè) 團(tuán)隊(duì)發(fā)明了怎么 在10秒鐘內(nèi)安裝剎車裝置。位于芝 加哥的一個(gè)團(tuán)隊(duì) 運(yùn)用該知識(shí)將時(shí) 間縮減了 15秒鐘英國石油的同行幫助：同行們從世界各地趕來幫助 一個(gè)團(tuán)隊(duì)研究一個(gè)特殊的石油勘探場地。這種合作提供了解決問題 的新方法一個(gè)公司并購了 ABC公司，6 個(gè)月后另外一

8、個(gè)地方的另外一個(gè)公司，使用 在ABC項(xiàng)目上 所學(xué)知識(shí)來并購DEF技術(shù)人員向 網(wǎng)絡(luò)發(fā)郵件， 詢問如何增 加年久的監(jiān) 視器的亮度， 7位專家給出 了答案三、知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移的過程基于對(duì)知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移過程的現(xiàn)實(shí)觀察，許多學(xué)者提出了有關(guān)知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移的模型， 其 中Hanse認(rèn)為知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移包括搜索和轉(zhuǎn)移兩階段，較為著名的是SzulanskP在1996年提出的四階段模型。模型如圖1,首先是初始階段，主要是識(shí)別有價(jià)值的知識(shí)， 并決定是否轉(zhuǎn)移該知識(shí)；其次是實(shí)施階段，雙方建立起適合知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移的渠道，提供 方向接受方傳遞知識(shí)；再次是調(diào)整階段，主要是接受方對(duì)于被轉(zhuǎn)移的知識(shí)進(jìn)行調(diào) 整，并能夠在新的情境中應(yīng)用。最后是整合階段，接受方通過制度

9、化將獲得的新知 識(shí)融合成為自身的規(guī)范或習(xí)慣。初始*在Szulansk研究的基石上，對(duì)Szulansk的模型進(jìn)行了重新修改，Kwan and Cheung8在2006年提出了新的四階段模型。如圖2所示模型間的轉(zhuǎn)換對(duì)應(yīng)關(guān)系、 新的四階段模型。其中，將Szulansk的模型的開始階段分為動(dòng)機(jī)和匹配階段；實(shí) 施和調(diào)整階段合并為實(shí)施階段，因?yàn)檫@兩個(gè)階段的決定因素很大程度上是相似 的；最后的階段定義為保持階段，是為了解釋知識(shí)貶值(Argote, 1999 )的現(xiàn)象并且反映通過知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移來反映企業(yè)達(dá)到可持續(xù)績效的重要性；另外，Kwan andCheung為動(dòng)機(jī)與匹配是一個(gè)反復(fù)的過程(模型中用雙箭頭表示)，這樣

10、更好地描 述了實(shí)踐中的知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移過程。圖2-Szulanfki 模型一Kwan and Cheung 模型+,四、知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移的影響因素Szulanski從內(nèi)部知識(shí)粘性入手細(xì)分了從提供方到接受方進(jìn)行轉(zhuǎn)移的四個(gè)階 段，同時(shí)又鑒別了影響知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移的四類因素：知識(shí)特性、知識(shí)發(fā)送方、知識(shí)接收 方和轉(zhuǎn)移環(huán)境。知識(shí)特性：知識(shí)的模糊性程度會(huì)影響知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移的方式和效果。 顯性知識(shí)相對(duì) 來說轉(zhuǎn)移效率高；隱性知識(shí)更多的只能通過個(gè)人之間的面對(duì)面的溝通交流來實(shí) 現(xiàn)，很難有效的提高轉(zhuǎn)移效率。知識(shí)發(fā)送方：知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移的發(fā)生，首先要有一個(gè)愿意共享的知識(shí)源的存在。 知 識(shí)發(fā)送發(fā)是否有動(dòng)機(jī)與他人共享知識(shí)，是自發(fā)的愿意共享還是來自外力的驅(qū)動(dòng)。

11、 例如，跨國公司中分部與分部之間的知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移包括分部與分部之間自發(fā)的知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn) 移，還有在總部調(diào)動(dòng)下分部之間的知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移。知識(shí)接收方：從知識(shí)發(fā)送方獲取知識(shí)的愿望和學(xué)習(xí)能力是影響知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移效果 的重要因素。轉(zhuǎn)移環(huán)境：包括企業(yè)的組織結(jié)構(gòu)、企業(yè)文化和制度安排等方面。 有些組織結(jié) 構(gòu)形態(tài)支持某些知識(shí)的傳播而另一些則妨礙知識(shí)的轉(zhuǎn)移。另外，知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移中兩主體的關(guān)系、兩主體特征的相似度、知識(shí)的相容性等也 會(huì)影響知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移的效果。五、結(jié)論和評(píng)述知識(shí)經(jīng)濟(jì)凸顯了知識(shí)的重要作用，而現(xiàn)代科技所表現(xiàn)出的高度分化和高度綜 合的特點(diǎn)，決定了任何單一組織都難以同時(shí)具備創(chuàng)新所需要的知識(shí)和能力。同時(shí),全球性市場競爭的高度不確定性，高技術(shù)研發(fā)的

12、高投入和高風(fēng)險(xiǎn)特點(diǎn)，技術(shù)壽命 周期的不斷縮短，也促使企業(yè)尋找各種途徑，與其他組織進(jìn)行合作，獲取知識(shí)，協(xié) 同創(chuàng)新。因而知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)移研究是當(dāng)今知識(shí)管理領(lǐng)域的研究熱點(diǎn)。Teece ,D. Technology transfer by multinational firms : the resource cost of transferring technological know - howJ . The Economic Journal ,1977 ,(87) :242 - 261.Jensen MC, Meckling W H. Specific and general knowledge, and

13、 organizational structureA.In Paul S. Myers(Ed.), Knowledeg management and organizational design C.Newton, MA: Butterworth- Heinemann,1996: 17- 37.Szulanski , G. Exploring internal stickiness : Impediments to the transfer of best practice within the firmJ . Strategic Management Journal (special issu

14、e) ,1996 , (17) :27 - 44.Thomas H Davenport. Working knowledge: how organizations manage what they know M.Harvard Business School Press ,1998.Holtham Clive, Courtney Nigel. Developing managerial learning styles in the context of the strategic application of information and communications technologie

15、sJ. International Journal of Training & Development, 2001, 5(1):22- 34.Dixon N M. Common knowledge: how companies thrive by sharing what they know M.Harvard Business School Press,2000.Szulanski, G, Exploring Internal Stickiness: Impediments to the Transfer of Best Practice Within the Firm. Strategic

16、 Management Journal, 1996. 17: p. 27-43Kwan, M. M. and P.-K. Cheung (2006). The Knowledge Transfer Process: From Field Studies to Technology Development. Journal of Database Management 17：16-32.第二部分Knowledge Transfer in Multi-National CorporationsWeiting Chen 陳煒婷Management Science 0610628095Introduc

17、tionUnder the international dynamic competitive background, knowledge is considered the most valuable strategic resource which generates continuous competitive advantages. For enterprises, the development and maintenance of its competitive advantages depend on its capability to manage its knowledge,

18、 i.e. capability to create, transfer, use and protect its knowledge capital. Most researchers believe that the reason why Multi-national Corporations (MNCs) exist and develop is that MNCs themselves are effective mechanisms of creating and transferring knowledge among nations. Therefore, the knowled

19、ge management and knowledge transfer among MNCs have become subjects of ample international research recently 1.Knowledge transfer and knowledge managementThere are various kinds of knowledge transfer definition. To sum up, they can be divided into three categories.The first category emphasizes the

20、transfer of the knowledge content. For example, researchers abroad apply the simple transfer method to give the definition of the organizational knowledge transfer between the knowledge sources and recipients 2. According to Garavelli etc.3, codification and interpretation are the main cognitive pro

21、cesses involved in knowledge transfer, while codification and interpretation represent upstream and downstream of knowledge transfer respectively. Knowledge objects, constructed through codification, are explained to users by cognitive systems.The second one highlights the profits of sources and rec

22、ipients of knowledge transfer. Knowledge transfer in organizations is the process through which one unit (e.g., group, department, or division) is affected by the experience of another 4. Darr and Kurtzberg 5, go further by arguing that knowledge transfer has occurred when a contributor shares knowl

23、edge that is used by adopter, which differs from others that equate knowledge transfer simply with sharing.Xiaoying Dong 6 also points out that only when new changes occur in the transfer process can the organizational capability of recipients be enhanced actually.The third one combines the above tw

24、o points, which stresses not only the transfer process but also the application and profits. Knowledge transfer is not simply the transfer channels but indeed the innovation process through acquisition and assimilation. According to Dong-Gil Ko, Laurie J. Kirsch etc. 7, knowledge transfer is defined

25、 as the communication of knowledge from a source so that it is learned and applied by a recipient.In comparison, the third category is more comprehensive. Knowledge transfer is accompanied by both the value transfer and the corresponding profits.Knowledge management is a wider concept, which means a

26、 systematic method to create, store, transfer and use knowledge. Knowledge transfer and knowledge management is interconnected. In the knowledge competition, the contradiction between the infinite knowledge and limited knowledge storage of units highlights the importance of knowledge transfer in the

27、 overall knowledge management system. As literature and empirical evidence suggests, knowledge transfer is considered a key process in knowledge management especially at international level.Micro-perspective: Knowledge flows in MNCsKnowledge flows are the vectors of knowledge transfer. From the micr

28、o-perspective, it is investigated through two ways: knowledge flow networks and knowledge flow channels 1.Knowledge flow networksThe headquarters and subsidiaries of MNCs are interconnected as network systems, with each being a node. There are several types of knowledge flow in terms of geographic c

29、haracteristics: first, flows among subsidiaries due to the difference in knowledge stock between each subsidiary. This can happen because of self-organized activities among subsidiaries, or intentional control from headquarters. Second, flows among subsidiaries and headquarters. Knowledge transferre

30、d from headquarters to subsidiaries is more synthesized, while the reverse transfer from high-level subsidiaries to headquarters may propel headquarters to develop knowledge creation and integration. Third, flows among units of MNCs (including headquarters and subsidiaries) and host countries, which

31、 are affected by units capability of learning, exploring and exploiting local recourses Fourth, flows among units of MNCs and other countries.Moreover, it is important to note that the extent of knowledge transfer in terms of output and input within a MNC also depends on the different roles of its a

32、ffiliated company 8. The main characteristics of these roles are the following: First, role of global innovator generates high output flow, low input flow. The affiliated company acts as a source of knowledge for other units. Second, role of integrated player generates high output flow and high inpu

33、t flow. Its role is similar to that of the global innovator, but is also implies a responsibility to create knowledge capable of being used by other affiliated companies. It differs in that it is not self-sufficient in the satisfaction of its own knowledge necessities. Third, role of implementer gen

34、erates low output flow and high input flow. It relies on input flows coming from headquarter or the affiliated companies. For this reason, it creates little knowledge by itself. Fourth, role of local innovator generates low output flow and low input flow. The affiliated company takes total responsib

35、ility for the creation of a relevant know-how. Nevertheless, this knowledge is considered to idiosyncratic to have a competitive use out of the country where the affiliated company is located.From other point of views 1, knowledge transfer is interwoven with competitive flows andco-operative flows,

36、where integration, substitution and transplant exist together under the guidance of intentional planning and coordination supplemented with unintentional self-organized operation. Moreover, the knowledge flows within MNCs contain multilateral relation among affiliated individuals and organizations.K

37、nowledge flow channelsThe process of knowledge transfer is realized through channels, which affect the quality and quantity of knowledge transferred 1.The effect of knowledge transfer should be analyzed comprehensively in terms of aspects such as sphere, depth, speed, cost and profits of knowledge t

38、ransfer etc. These depend on the following factors 1:First, the characteristics of knowledge. Explicit and tacit knowledge have huge difference in aspects of transfer media, method, and cost etc. As tacit knowledge character increases, this knowledge becomes less teachable, less codifying, and then

39、less transferable. This knowledge transference is complex and difficult for several reasons, among which the following stand out 8: complex nature; acquisition by means of experience, test and error method; teaching and learning, if possible, is developed by demonstration, observation, imitation and

40、 feedback these activities need close personal contact for a long period of time; organizational learning generates tacit knowledge that is collective and even more difficult to transfer; and although expatriate staff can serve as a substitute for tacit knowledge transference, it becomes a costly pr

41、ocess, because this knowledge might be collective and needs the transference of a large amount of individuals from the headquarter, which might not be practical or even possible.Second, sources and recipients in knowledge transfer. The effectiveness of knowledge transfer depends to some extent on th

42、e strength of the tie between the source and recipient, which is reflected in the ease of communication and in the “intimacy of their overall relationship 9. An arduous relationship might increase the effort needed to resolve transfer-related problems. The eventfulness of the knowledge transfer is a

43、lso likely to depend on the dispositions and abilities of the source and recipient. The motivation of the source may be affected by an incentive to compete or collaborate with the recipient and by the effort required to support the transfer. Furthermore, the source may not be perceived as reliable.

44、A capable and trustworthy source is more likely to influence the behavior of the recipient. Likewise, the recipient may be more or less motivated to seek or accept knowledge from the outside. Lack of motivation may result in procrastination, passivity, feigned acceptance, sabotage, or outright rejec

45、tion in the implementation and use of new knowledge. Recipients may also vary in their absorptive capacity their ability to exploit outside sources of knowledge. Furthermore, to reap the rewards of a transfer, recipients must be able to discard old practices and sustain new ones. Evidence from studi

46、es of innovation, planned organizational change, and organizational learning suggests that the challenge of abandoning old ways of doing things and of preserving new ones can be significant 9.Finally, the organizational context where the transfer is embedded may affect the eventfulness of the transf

47、er. Ultimately, the organizational context affects the willingness and ability of organizational subunits to complete transfer related tasks. Its influence occurs through norm and value setting, through fiat or incentives, and through counsel and support. An organizational context that facilitates t

48、he inception and development of transfers is frequently referred to as fertile . In contrast, a context that hinders the gestation and evolution of transfers is said to be barren . In a barren organizational context,transfer related problems are more difficult to resolve 9.Macro-perspective: Environ

49、ment of MNCsThe very existence of a MNC lies in its ability to internalize externalities by putting together local and international resources and activities at a more efficient rate than markets do. Therefore, the characteristics of host countries (including natural resources, labor resources, geog

50、raphic environment, technologic level, political and economic policies, market size, infrastructure, policies of import, export and tax, etc) have great impact on knowledge transfer in MNCs.Followed are the main factors that have been widely discussed in research 1.First, social capital is considere

51、d the lubricant during the knowledge transfer, which provides development platform for knowledge communication network. Knowledge exists in social relations among cooperating units of a community without fixed boundaries. The close social ties build confidence and trust among units, propelling them

52、to construct knowledge alliances.Second, industry cluster is defined as the geographic cluster gathered by the interconnection network of different sizes of co-operative enterprises and organizations. Most MNCs which have intensified R&D are based on industry cluster.Third, cross-culture management

53、is very important. Cultural differences may create bottlenecks that either impede or eliminate the potential for successful knowledge transfer. Lack of culture integration or even contradiction of cultures will make the subsidiaries deviate from their headquarters, which gives great discount on the

54、effectiveness of internal knowledge transfer. Using Hofstedes cultural distance of power distance, individualism/collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity/femininity, it is argued that the location of subsidiaries along each of these cultural dimensions will significantly impact the possi

55、bility of knowledge transfer between subsidiaries 10.Individualism/collectivism (IC) is the degree to which self-interest. It reflects the concerns of individuals with their own well-being versus the well-being of others.Power distance (PD) is based on peoples perception of inequality. It reflects t

56、he non-symmetrical nature of relationships that may exist between subsidiaries.Uncertainty avoidance (UA) is the reluctance to deal with ambiguity and is directly related to the willingness to embrace change.Masculinity/femininity (MF) is the willingness to promote societal values. In masculine cult

57、ures, there is a preference for assertiveness. Priority is given to results and rewards which are based on ambition and competitiveness. In feminine cultures, assertiveness is downplayed and differences are resolved through compromise and negotiation.What should be taken into account is that countri

58、es and their cultures evolve over time 10. Anecdotal evidence suggests that many MNCs are locating their subsidiaries in areas where there are a significant number of individuals with prior exposure to other cultures. Therefore, changes in the societys culture will affect how knowledge transfer goal

59、s are achieved.Intra-MNC knowledge transferBased on the previous analysis, the knowledge transfer within MNCs subsidiaries can be investigated through the following model, which includes factors of operational structure, integrative mechanisms and subsidiary control mechanisms 11. According to the e

60、mpirical research 11, these factors are significant under the significant level of 0.05.Operational structureSubsidiaries operate within an operational structure of relationships and links to other units.This operational structure is constituted by the actual physical and transactional flow between