英語語言學(xué)概論整理

1、Chapter 1 Language語言1. Design feature (識別特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.2. Productivity (能產(chǎn)性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in their na

2、tive language.3. arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and its meaning.4. symbol (符號) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention.5. dis

3、creteness (離散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct.6. displacement (不受時空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in the immediate situations of its users.7. duality of structure

4、 (結(jié)構(gòu)二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality of structure.8. culture transmission (文化傳播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by

5、 inheritance.9. interchangeability (互換性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.1. What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language.First,

6、 language is a system.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense.The third feature of language is symbolic nature.2. What are the design features of language?Language has seven design features as following:1) Productivity. 2) Discreteness.3) Displacement4) Arbitrariness.5) Cultural transmission6) Du

7、ality of structure.7) Interchangeability. 3. Why do we say language is a system?Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates.

8、And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other.4. (Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of childrens language? And what are the three functional components of adult language?I. Hallid

9、ay uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of childrens language:1) Instrumental function. 工具功能2) Regulatory function. 調(diào)節(jié)功能3) Representational function. 表現(xiàn)功能4) Interactional function. 互動功能5) Personal function. 自指性功能6) Heuristic function. 啟發(fā)功能 osbQtqkfh7) Imaginative function. 想象功能

10、II. Adult language has three functional components as following:1) Interpersonal components. 人際2) Ideational components.概念3) Textual components.語篇Chapter 2 Linguistics語言學(xué)1. general linguistics and descriptive linguistics (普通語言學(xué)與描寫語言學(xué)) The former deals with language in general whereas the latter is c

11、oncerned with one particular language.2. synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics (共時語言學(xué)與歷時語言學(xué)) Diachronic linguistics traces the historical development of the language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents

12、 an account of language as it is at some particular point in time. 3. theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics (理論語言學(xué)與應(yīng)用語言學(xué)) The former copes with languages with a view to establishing a theory of their structures and functions whereas the latter is concerned with the application of the conce

13、pts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks.4. microlinguistics and macrolinguistics (微觀語言學(xué)與宏觀語言學(xué)) The former studies only the structure of language system whereas the latter deals with everything that is related to languages.5. langue and parole (語言與言語) The former refers to the

14、abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech community whereas the latter refers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situation by an individual speaker.6. competence and performance (語言能力與語言運用) The former is ones knowledge of all the linguistic regulation systems whereas t

15、he latter is the use of language in concrete situation.7. speech and writing (口頭語與書面語) Speech is the spoken form of language whereas writing is written codes, gives language new scope.8. linguistics behavior potential and actual linguistic behavior (語言行為潛勢與實際語言行為) People actually says on a certain o

16、ccasion to a certain person is actual linguistics behavior. And each of possible linguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behavior potential.9. syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation (橫組合關(guān)系與縱聚合關(guān)系) The former describes the horizontal dimension of a language while the latter desc

17、ribes the vertical dimension of a language.10. verbal communication and non-verbal communication (言語交際與非言語交際) Usual use of language as a means of transmitting information is called verbal communication. The ways we convey meaning without using language is called non-verbal communication.1. How does

18、John Lyons classify linguistics?According to John Lyons, the field of linguistics as a whole can be divided into several subfields as following: 1) General linguistics and descriptive linguistics.2) Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics.3) Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.

19、4) Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics.2. Explain the three principles by which the linguist is guided: consistency, adequacy and simplicity.1) Consistency means that there should be no contradictions between different parts of the theory and the description.2) Adequacy means that the theory must

20、be broad enough in scope to offer significant generalizations.3) Simplicity requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.3. What are the sub-branches of linguistics within the language system?Within the language system there are six sub-branches as following:1) Phonetics. 語音學(xué) is a study of sp

21、eech sounds of all human languages.2) Phonology. 音位學(xué) studies about the sounds and sound patterns of a speakers native language.3) Morphology. 形態(tài)學(xué) studies about how a word is formed.4) Syntax. 句法學(xué) studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not. 5) Semantics. 語義學(xué) studies about the meaning of l

22、anguage, including meaning of words and meaning of sentences.6) Pragmatics. 語用學(xué) The scope of language: Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.The scientific process of linguistic study: It involves four stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and d

23、rawing conclusions.Chapter 3 Phonetics語音學(xué)1. articulatory phonetics(發(fā)音語音學(xué)) The study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2. acoustic phonetics (聲學(xué)語音學(xué)) The study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3. aud

24、itory phonetics (聽覺語音學(xué)) The study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4. consonant (輔音) Consonant is a speech sound where the air form the language is either completely blocked, or partially blocked, or where the opening between the speech organs is so narrow that

25、the air escapes with audible friction.5. vowel (元音) is defined as a speech sound in which the air from the lungs is not blocked in any way and is pronounced with vocal-cord vibration.6. bilabials (雙唇音) Bilabials means that consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or restricted by the two lips

26、. p b m w7. affricates (塞擦音) The sound produced by stopping the airstream and then immediately releasing it slowly is called affricates. tX dY tr dr8. glottis (聲門) Glottis is the space between the vocal cords.9. rounded vowel (圓唇元音) Rounded vowel is defined as the vowel sound pronounced by the lips

27、forming a circular opening. u: u OB O10. diphthongs (雙元音) Diphthongs are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.eiaiOi Quau11. triphthongs (三合元音) Triphthongs are those which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another and then rapidly and co

28、ntinuously to a third one. eiQaiQOiQ QuQauQ12. lax vowels (松元音) According to distinction of long and short vowels, vowels are classified tense vowels and lax vowels. All the long vowels are tense vowels but of the short vowels,e is a tense vowel as well, and the rest short vowels are lax vowels.1. H

29、ow are consonants classified in terms of different criteria?The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.1) The position of the soft palate.2) The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration.3) The place of articulation.4) The manner of articulation.2. How are vowels cl

30、assified in terms of different criteria?Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors.1) The state of the velum2) The position of the tongue.3) The openness of the mouth.4) The shape of the lips.5) The length of the vowels.6) The tension of the muscles at pharynx.3. What are the three sub-b

31、ranches of phonetics? How do they differ from each other?Phonetics has three sub-branches as following:1) Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2) Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties and of the transmission

32、 of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3) Auditory phonetics is the study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4. What are the commonly used phonetic features for consonants and vowels respectively?I. The frequently used phonetic features for consonants incl

33、ude the following:1) Voiced.2) Nasal.3) Consonantal.4) Vocalic.5) Continuant.6) Anterior.7) Coronal.8) Aspirated.II. The most common phonetic features for vowels include the following:1) High.2) Low.3) Front.4) Back.5) Rounded.6) Tense.Chapter 4 Phonology 音位學(xué)1. phonemes (音位) Phonemes are minimal dis

34、tinctive units in the sound system of a language.2. allophones (音位變體) Allophones are the phonetic variants and realizations of a particular phoneme.3. phones (單音) The smallest identifiable phonetic unit found in a stream of speech is called a phone.4. minimal pair (最小對立體) Minimal pair means words wh

35、ich differ from each other only by one sound.5. contrastive distribution (對比分布) If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for another brings about a change of meaning, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.6. complementary distribution (互補分布)

36、 If two or more sounds never appear in the same environment ,then they are said to be in complementary distribution.7. free variation (自由變異) When two sounds can appear in the same environment and the substitution of one for the other does not cause any change in meaning, then they are said to be in

37、free variation.8. distinctive features (區(qū)別性特征) A distinctive feature is a feature which distinguishes one phoneme from another.9. suprasegmental features (超切分特征) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.10. tone

38、 languages (聲調(diào)語言) Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level.11. intonation languages (語調(diào)語言) Intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level.12. juncture (連音) Juncture refers to the phonetic boundary features whi

39、ch may demarcate grammatical units.1. What are the differences between English phonetics and English phonology?1) Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds, while phonology attempts to account for how they are combined, organized, and convey meani

40、ng in particular languages.2) Phonetics is the study of the actual sounds while phonology is concerned with a more abstract description of speech sounds and tries to describe the regularities of sound patterns.2. Give examples to illustrate the relationship between phonemes, phones and allophones.Wh

41、en we hear pit,tip,spit,etc, the similar phones we have heard are /p/. And /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes in English, while ph and p are allophones. 3. How can we decide a minimal pair or a minimal set?A minimal pair should meet three conditions:1) The two forms are different in meaning.2) The tw

42、o forms are different in one sound segment.3) The different sounds occur in the same position of the two strings.4. Use examples to explain the three types of distribution.1) Contrastive distribution. Sounds m in met and n in net are in contrastive distribution because substituting m for n will resu

43、lt in a change of meaning.2) Complementary distribution. The aspirated plosive ph and the unaspirated plosive p are in complementary distribution because the former occurs either initially in a word or initially in a stressed syllable while the latter never occurs in such environments.3) Free variat

44、ion. In English, the word “direct” may be pronounce in two ways: /direkt/ and /diarekt/, and the two different sounds /i/ and /ai/ can be said to be in free variation.5. Whats the difference between segmental features and suprasegmental features? What are the suprasegmental features in English?I. 1)

45、 Distinctive features, which are used to distinguish one phoneme from another and thus have effect on one sound segment, are referred to as segmental features. 2) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features. 3) Sup

46、rasegmental features may have effect on more than one sound segment. They may apply to a string of several sounds. main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, intonation and juncture.6. Whats the difference between tone languages and intonation language?Tone languages are those which use pitc

47、h to contrast meaning at word level while intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level7. Whats the difference between phonetic transcriptions and phonemic transcriptions?The former was meant to symbolize all possible speech sounds, including

48、 even the most minute shades of pronunciation, while the latter was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.Chapter 5 Morphology 形態(tài)學(xué)1. morphemes (語素) Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units in the grammatical system of a language.

49、allomorphs (語素變體) Allomorphs are the realizations of a particular morpheme.morphs (形素) Morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general and are the actual forms used to realize morphemes.2. roots (詞根) Roots is defined as the most important part of a word that carries the principal meaning.affixes

50、 (詞綴) Affixes are morphemes that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words.free morphemes (自由語素) Free morphemes are those which can exist as individual words.bound morphemes (粘著語素) Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur on their own as separate words.3. infle

51、ctional affixes (屈折詞綴) refer to affixes that serve to indicate grammatical relations, but do not change its part of speech.derivational affixes (派生詞綴) refer to affixes that are added to words in order to change its grammatical category or its meaning.4. empty morph (空語子) Empty morph means a morph wh

52、ich has form but no meaning.zero morph (零語子) Zero morph refers to a morph which has meaning but no form.5. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchically defined series of constituents. 6. immediate constituents

53、(直接成分) A immediate constituent is any one of the largest grammatical units that constitute a construction. Immediate constituents are often further reducible. ultimate constituents (最后成分) Ultimate constituents are those grammatically irreducible units that constitute constructions.7. morphological r

54、ules (形態(tài)學(xué)規(guī)則) The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.8. word-formation process (構(gòu)詞法) Word-formation process mean the rule-governed processes of forming new words on the basis of already existing linguistic resources.1. What is IC Ana

55、lysis? IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.2. How are morphemes classified?1) Semantically speaking, morphemes are grouped into two categories: root morphemes and affixational morphemes.2) St

56、ructurally speaking, they are divided into two types: free morphemes and bound morphemes.3. Explain the interrelations between semantic and structural classifications of morphemes.a) All free morphemes are roots but not all roots are free morphemes.b) All affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bou

57、nd morphemes are affixes.4. Whats the difference between an empty morph and a zero morph?a) Empty morph means a morph that has form but no meaning.b) Zero morph refers to a morph that has meaning but no form.5. Explain the differences between inflectional and derivational affixes in term of both fun

58、ction and position.a) Functionally:i. Inflectional affixes sever to mark grammatical relations and never create new words while derivational affixes can create new words.ii. Inflectional affixes do not cause a change in grammatical class while derivational affixes very often but not always cause a change in grammatical class. b) In term of position:i. Inflectional affixes are suffixes while deriva