CURRICULUM(課程分析)課件

CurriculumandTeachingTheoriesCurriculumandTeachingThe1IntroductionofthecoursePurpose

1.grasptherationaleforCurriculumandTeaching.2.developtheabilitytolookuptheEnglishmaterial.3.widenthefieldofvisionofstudents’studying.Introductionofthecourse2ListofReferenceBooks

1.《Analyzingthecurriculum(課程分析)》GeorgeJ.Posner/著陜西師大出版社2.《LearningtoTeaching(學(xué)會(huì)教學(xué))》RichardI.Arends/著陜西師大出版社3.《課程與教學(xué)論》黃甫全主編高等教育出版社4.《課程與教學(xué)論》張華主編華東師大出版社5.《課程理論-課程的基礎(chǔ)、原理與問題》施良方著教育科學(xué)出版社6.《課程研制方法論》郝德永著教育科學(xué)出版社7.《教學(xué)論》李秉德、李定仁主編人民教育出版社8.《教學(xué)理論反思與建設(shè)》徐繼存著甘肅教育出版社9.《教學(xué)論導(dǎo)論》徐繼存著甘肅教育出版社10.《教學(xué)別論》石歐著湖南教育出版社

ListofReferenceBooks3ContentsinBriefPartⅠAboutCurriculum(20lessons)

ChapterⅠConceptsofCurriculumChapterⅡCurriculumPurposeChapterⅢCurriculumContentChapterⅣCurriculumOrganizationChapterⅤCurriculumImplementationChapterⅥCurriculumEvaluationContentsinBriefPartⅠAb4PartⅡTeachingTheories(22lessons)

ChapterⅠTeachingandLearninginToday’sClassroomsChapterⅡTeacherPlanningChapterⅢClassroomsAsLearningCommunitiesChapterⅣClassroomManagementChapterⅤAssessmentandEvaluationPartⅢtheRelationship(3lessons)PartⅡTeachingTheories(25PartⅠAboutCurriculum

ChapterⅠConceptsofCurriculum

Whatisacurriculum?Forexampleisatextbookorasyllabusacurriculum?Whatshouldacurriculuminclude?PartⅠAboutCurriculum

Cha6Definitionsof“curriculum”Sevencommonconceptsofcurriculum⒈Scopeandsequence

Thedepictionofcurriculumasamatrixofobjectivesassignedtosuccessivegradelevelsandgroupedaccordingtoacommontheme.Definitionsof“curriculum”7

⒉SyllabusAplanforanentirecourse,typicallyincludingrationale,topics,resources,andevaluation.⒊ContentoutlineAlistoftopicscoveredorganizedinoutlineform.⒋StandardsAlistofknowledgeandskillsrequiredbyallstudentsuponcompletion.⒉SyllabusAplanfo8

⒌Textbooks

Instructionalmaterialsusedastheguideforclassroominstruction.⒍CourseofstudyAseriesofcoursesthatthestudentmustcomplete.⒎PlannedexperiencesAllexperiencesstudentshavethatareplannedbytheschoolwhetheracademic,athletic,emotional,orsocial.⒌TextbooksInstruction9Thefivelevelsofcurriculum(J.I.Goodlad)1.ideologicalcurriculum2.formalcurriculum3.perceivedcurriculum4.operationalcurriculum5.experientialcurriculumThefivelevelsofcurricu10課程的多元定義并不妨礙對(duì)課程領(lǐng)域的具體研究。廣泛的、廣義的理解課程，同時(shí)防止課程范圍的過分寬泛，特別是潛在的方面。建立一種建構(gòu)的、生成的課程觀。任何課程都是根植于一定的歷史文化傳統(tǒng)，反映文化的承接，民族文化的特點(diǎn)。CURRICULUM(課程分析)課件11

課程是一個(gè)發(fā)展的概念，它是為實(shí)現(xiàn)各級(jí)各類學(xué)校的教育目標(biāo)而規(guī)定的教學(xué)科目及它的目的、內(nèi)容、范圍、分量和進(jìn)程的總和，包括為學(xué)生的全面發(fā)展而營(yíng)造的學(xué)校環(huán)境的全部?jī)?nèi)容。--------（《當(dāng)代教育學(xué)》袁振國(guó)主編第132頁(yè)）課程是一個(gè)發(fā)展的概念，它是為實(shí)現(xiàn)各級(jí)各類12Thethreecurricula

SubjectCurriculum

Thecurriculumconsistsofthosesubjectmattersaccordingtoeducationalgoalsandthestudent’sdevelopinglevels，andgoesbythelogicalsystemtosetstandards,compiletextbooks,fixteachingorder.Thecurriculumisthebasicformofschoolcurriculum.

Thethreecurricula13

Activitycurriculum

Thecurriculumfocusonthedevelopmentofstudent’sinterestsandorganizedaccordingtothemotiveofstudent’sactivity.HiddencurriculumInstitutionalnormsandvaluesnotopenlyacknowledgedbyteachersorschoolofficials.

Activitycurriculum14材料：基礎(chǔ)教育課程改革綱要

改變課程管理過于集中的狀況實(shí)行國(guó)家地方學(xué)校調(diào)整課程結(jié)構(gòu)實(shí)行小學(xué)階段以綜合課程為主；初中階段設(shè)置分科與綜合相結(jié)合的課程；高中以分科課程為主從小學(xué)至高中設(shè)置綜合實(shí)踐活動(dòng)并作為必修課材料：基礎(chǔ)教育課程改革綱要改變課程管15Topicfordiscussion:

ThecurriculumpurposesofbasiceducationinChina.

CFteamTopicfordiscussion:

Th16ChapterⅡCurriculumpurposeLevelsofEducationalPurposes

societalgoal

Whatcitizensorpolicymakerswanttheircountry’spolitical,economic,social,andeducationalinstitutionstoaccomplish.

ChapterⅡCurriculumpurpos17

administrativegoal

Whatleadersoforganizationswanttoaccomplishthatallowsforthemaintenanceandimprovementoftheorganization.

administrativegoal18

educationalaim

whatcitizensorpolicymakerswantsociety’seducationalinstitutionstoaccomplish;generallylong-termandtheresultofmanyinfluences,onlyoneofwhichistheschool;generallyexpressedintermsofcharacteristicsofpeoplewhohavebeenwelleducated.

educationalaimwha19

educationalgoal

whatcitizensorpolicymakerswantformaleducationalinstitutions-i.e.,schoolsandcolleges-toaccomplishexpressedintermsofcharacteristicsofpeoplewhohavebeenwell-educated.

educationalgoalwhat20

learningobjective

whateverpeopleareintendedtolearnasaconsequenceofbeingstudentsineducationalinstitutions.learningobjective21

SocietalgoalareachievedthrougheducationalothersocietalinstitutionsinstitutionsareguidedbyeducationalaimsadministrativegoalsAreachievedthroughformalnonformalmaturationeducationeducationisguidedbyeducationalgoalsothergoalsareachievedthroughlearningobjectivesotherobjectives

22

TheOriginofCurriculumPurpose

1.Studyofstudents2.Studyofsociety3.Studyofsubject

23ChapterⅢCurriculumcontent

Whatiscurriculumcontent?Forexampleistextbook,learningactivitiesorexperiences?Howtoselectcurriculumcontent?Whatshouldcurriculumtypeandstructureinclude?ChapterⅢCurriculumconten24Topicfordiscussion:

Thetransformationofcurriculumcontentofbasiceducationinourcountry.

Dreaming

teamTopicfordiscussion:

25

whatiscurriculumcontentcurriculumcontentThespecialfacts,conceptionsandtenetsofeverysubjects,andtheformoforganizingthem.threeperspectivesofcurriculumcontentthetextbookthelearningactivitiestheexperienceswhatiscurriculumcontent26

n

principlesofcurriculumcontentselectionpayattentiontothebasisofcurriculumcontent.curriculumcontentshouldkeepclosetosociallife.

Materials

Curriculumcontentshouldsuitcharactersofstudentandschooleducation.n

principlesofcurriculum27材料：語(yǔ)文新教材修改八成多——北京青年報(bào)(07/07/1104:03)

“高一新教材總共有56種，目前除了11種練習(xí)冊(cè)沒到之外，其余教材全部到了，包括必修科目和選修科目?！睋?jù)即將參與新課程改革教學(xué)的高中語(yǔ)文老師介紹，從在今年秋季使用的新高中《語(yǔ)文》教材中，包括《春》、《雨中登泰山》、《南州六月荔枝丹》等著名篇目已經(jīng)被刪除，“語(yǔ)文教材內(nèi)容變化很大，高一至少改了八成內(nèi)容?！蹦壳?，高中新課改使用的教材陸續(xù)運(yùn)抵各中學(xué)。

“高一語(yǔ)文教材內(nèi)容變化很大，增加了很多內(nèi)容?！北本?7中學(xué)高級(jí)語(yǔ)文教師祁曉紅說，原來許多高二、高三才上的課，在新教材中壓到高一來學(xué)，比如《竇娥冤》、《藺相如廉頗列傳》等，還增加了許多篇目，比如巴金的《小狗包弟》、《別了不列顛尼亞》等。另外，在名著導(dǎo)讀中原來只學(xué)部分內(nèi)容的《論語(yǔ)》等也要求全部導(dǎo)讀?？梢哉f，新版本的高一《語(yǔ)文》教材內(nèi)容，有材料：語(yǔ)文新教材修改八成多28八成以上都與老版本不同。在這次語(yǔ)文新課程改革中，一些著名文章被刪除了，其中包括原來的高一《語(yǔ)文》第一課《雨中登泰山》、膾炙人口的散文《春》、經(jīng)典的說明文《南州六月荔枝丹》等。與此同時(shí)，一些曾經(jīng)被高中《語(yǔ)文》課本刪除的篇目如今又重新被選用，比如《包身工》（作者夏衍）等?！氨粍h除的文章主要是因其時(shí)代感不強(qiáng)，現(xiàn)在的學(xué)生覺得學(xué)起來拗口或沒有意義。比如《雨中登泰山》寫于改革開放之后，當(dāng)時(shí)宣揚(yáng)的是下定決心排除萬難的精神，而現(xiàn)在改革開放已經(jīng)初顯成效，更重要的是要提高學(xué)生的鑒賞能力?！北本┬赂删€高中語(yǔ)文教研組專家成員霄虹老師說，“增加的內(nèi)容則主要是從提高學(xué)生的人文素質(zhì)角度考慮，比如《別了不列顛尼亞》、《奧斯維辛沒有什么新聞》等都是從人性角度挖掘。而《論語(yǔ)》、《蘇武傳》等增加內(nèi)容則加重了對(duì)學(xué)生傳統(tǒng)文學(xué)的普及與認(rèn)知?！?/p>

八成以上都與老版本不同。在這次語(yǔ)文新課程改革中，一些著名文章29n

curriculumtypesandstructuren

curriculumtypes1.Accordingtotheformofcurriculumorganization

Subject-basedcurriculumRelatedcurriculumFusedcurriculumMaterialsBroad-fieldcurriculumCorecurriculumexperience-basedcurriculum

n

curriculumtypesandstru30材料2綜合課程的兩個(gè)范例：生態(tài)教育與STS課程

生態(tài)教育這是近年來國(guó)內(nèi)外比較常見的，也往往是比較成功的課程綜合。浙江省初中的第一冊(cè)第五章“地球”，都是這種類型，即從生態(tài)的整體性出發(fā)組織內(nèi)容。在浙江自然科學(xué)第一冊(cè)第五章中安排了大氣、地球上的水、地球表面的形態(tài)、地貌的變化、地球的運(yùn)動(dòng)、宇宙中的地球六節(jié)內(nèi)容，將所涉及的原來分別屬于物理、化學(xué)、生物、地理等學(xué)科的有關(guān)內(nèi)容，按照上述六個(gè)題目很自然地融合在一起，不僅有利于學(xué)生相互聯(lián)系地學(xué)習(xí)它們，也確實(shí)有利于學(xué)生獲得對(duì)世界整體性的認(rèn)識(shí)，養(yǎng)成他們看待世界的寬廣、全面的視野及開放和辨證的態(tài)度。以“氧氣”的知識(shí)為例，在這樣的組織結(jié)構(gòu)中學(xué)習(xí)與以往在化學(xué)中學(xué)習(xí)大為不同，知識(shí)建立的背景和基礎(chǔ)要廣闊、豐富得多。材料2綜合課程的兩個(gè)范例：生態(tài)教育與STS課程31STS課程（科學(xué)-技術(shù)-社會(huì)）

STS課程在20世紀(jì)70年代開始出現(xiàn)，并且很快得到人們的重視和發(fā)展。80年代前后，在發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家出現(xiàn)了一批比較著名的STS課程，如英國(guó)的“社會(huì)中的科學(xué)和技術(shù)”（SATLS）、“學(xué)校中的社會(huì)范圍的理科”（SLSCON），以及美國(guó)的“生物科學(xué)課程研究”、“社會(huì)中的化學(xué)”等等，主要對(duì)象是16-18歲的學(xué)生。美國(guó)《社會(huì)中的化學(xué)》（CHEMCOM）課程，始于1980年，完成于1986年，在美國(guó)和世界都產(chǎn)生了相當(dāng)大的影響。這一課程是在科學(xué)界和教育界的合作下完成的，由美國(guó)化學(xué)會(huì)負(fù)責(zé)，美國(guó)國(guó)家科學(xué)基金和美國(guó)化學(xué)會(huì)自主，編寫組成員包括了中學(xué)和大學(xué)的化學(xué)教師。課程的對(duì)象是10-11年級(jí)學(xué)生（15-16歲，高中1-2年級(jí)）中的一部分，主要是那些在接受高等教育時(shí)不打算選擇理工科的學(xué)生。

STS課程（科學(xué)-技術(shù)-社會(huì)）STS課32課程選擇了八個(gè)問題作為主題，分別是：供水；保護(hù)化學(xué)資源；石油——用于建設(shè)還是燒掉；理解食物；我們世界中的核化學(xué)；化學(xué)藥品、空氣和氣候；化學(xué)和健康；化學(xué)工業(yè)——前途和挑戰(zhàn)。每一個(gè)主題構(gòu)成為時(shí)大約一個(gè)月的學(xué)習(xí)單元。每一個(gè)單元都集中在社會(huì)和世界公認(rèn)的化學(xué)問題上。每一個(gè)單元都有具體的社會(huì)背景：學(xué)校、社區(qū)、世界等，由此將化學(xué)與人類現(xiàn)實(shí)生活聯(lián)系起來?！渡鐣?huì)中的化學(xué)》課程不僅包括對(duì)于內(nèi)容的選擇和設(shè)計(jì)，而且包括對(duì)于課程實(shí)施即教學(xué)活動(dòng)的設(shè)計(jì)，在每個(gè)單元里都設(shè)計(jì)了幾個(gè)學(xué)生活動(dòng)，大致分為決策活動(dòng)、實(shí)驗(yàn)課活動(dòng)、“現(xiàn)在輪到你”（練習(xí)）、單元總結(jié)和“擴(kuò)展你的知識(shí)”（附加項(xiàng)目）等幾類。STS課程十分典型地表現(xiàn)出綜合課程的一些特點(diǎn)，為綜合課提供了一種比較成功的范例。課程選擇了八個(gè)問題作為主題，分別是：332.basisonthecurriculumphilosophystudent-centeredcurriculumsociety-centeredcurriculumdiscipline-centeredcurriculum2.basisonthecurriculumphi34ncurriculumstructure

implementdiscipline、knowledgedisciplineandtechnologydisciplineimplementdiscipline

Includingliterature,mathematicsandforeignlanguage,generally,thepercentofimplementdisciplineinschoolcurriculumisabout50%.

ncurriculumstructure35knowledgedisciplineIncludingsocialscienceandnaturescience,forexample,history,geography,politics,physics,chemistry,biology.etc.technologydisciplineincludingphysicaltraining,artandtechnology.Materialsn

requiredsubject、electivesubject、activesubjectandsocialactivities

knowledgediscipline36材料3:國(guó)家教委與上海市課程計(jì)劃各學(xué)科占課時(shí)的百分比材料3:國(guó)家教委與上海市課程計(jì)劃各學(xué)科占課時(shí)的百分比37ChapterⅣCurriculumOrganization

Howtocomprehendcurriculumorganization?Whatarebasicstructuresofcurriculumorganization?Howtoorganizecurriculum?ChapterⅣCurriculumOrgan38BasicTerms

CurriculumOrganizationMacroandMicroLevelsoforganization

BasicTerms39

CurriculumOrganization

theword“organization”means“toformasorintoawholeconsistingofinterdependentorcoordinatedparts”.Thepartsinthiscaseareelementsofthecurriculum.Therefore,theterm“curriculumorganization”canhaveawiderangeofmeanings,dependingonwhichdefinitionoftheterm“curriculum”isbeingusedandwhatkindsofelementsaretobeorganized.CurriculumOrganizati40

MacroandMicroLevelsofOrganization

Theterm“curriculumorganization”isalsousedatdifferentlevelsofspecificity.

Thebroadestlevelreferstotherelationsbetweeneducationallevels,suchaselementaryandsecondaryeducation,(material)orbetweeneducationalprograms,suchasvocationalandgeneralprograms.

Themostspecificlevelreferstorelationsbetweenparticularconcepts,facts,orskillswithinlesson.

MacroandMicroLevel41材料：義務(wù)教育課程設(shè)置表

年級(jí)一二三四五六七八九課程門類語(yǔ)文數(shù)學(xué)外語(yǔ)品德與生活品德與社會(huì)思想品德歷史與社會(huì)或歷史地理科學(xué)科學(xué)或物理生物化學(xué)綜合實(shí)踐活動(dòng)體育體育與健康藝術(shù)（或音樂、美術(shù)）地方與學(xué)校編制的課程材料：義務(wù)教育課程設(shè)置表

年42Basicstructures

ContentStructures

discrete(orflat)linearHierarchicalSpiral

Basicstructures43Contentstructure

ABCDA1BCEFDGABCDAC1B1A2C2B2A3C3B3Discrete,orflatlinearhierarchicalspiralContentstructureABCDA1BCEFDG44MediaStructures

“parallel”structure

“convergent”structure

“divergent”structure

“mixed”curriculum

MediaStructures45CF12BE12AAD12312parallelconvergentDABCDBCA

divergentMixedCF46

OrganizationalPrinciples

TheSubjectMatterTheLearnersandtheLearningprocessTheTeacherandtheTeachingprocess

OrganizationalPrinci471.Intheelementarygrades,teachthebasicskillsinthemorningwhenthechildrenarefreshandwillingtocomply,leavingscience,health,andsocialstudiesfortheafternoon(iftimepermits!)2.Changeactivitiesasoftenasisnecessaryinordertomaintainstudents’attention.3.Keepstudentsbusyandactive;thatis,maintainafast-pacedclassroom.1.Intheelementarygra484.Becausestudentsperceiveworkthatisunfamiliarasambiguous,andthereforerisky,theytendtotransformunfamiliartasks.Therefore,beginteachingwithfamiliartasksuntilstudentsdeveloptrustandself-confidence.5.Don’tlingeronanytopictoolong.6.Keeptopicsdiscreteenoughtodevelopasenseofproductivityintheclassandtoprovidestoppingpointsforperiodictesting.4.Becausestudentsperc49

Themilieuinwhicheducationtakeplace

SocialEconomicPoliticalPhysicalCultureThemilieuinwhichedu50ChapterⅤCurriculumImplementationHowtocomprehendcurriculumimplementation?Whataremainchannelsofcurriculumimplementation?whatshouldinfluencefactorsinclude?ChapterⅤCurriculumImple51Topicfordiscussion:

Thenewdevelopmentofcurriculumimplementationofelementaryeducationreformation.

WildcatteamTopicfordiscussion:

52

CurriculumImplementationCurriculumimplementation

curriculumimplementationistheprocessthatcurriculumplanwillbeputintopractice,itisthebasicchannelthatcurriculumpurposewillberealized.Newcurriculumplangenerallymeansthetransformofcurriculum,curriculumimplementationtrytoputitintopractice.

CurriculumImplement53

Thedifferencebetweencurriculumimplementationandcurriculumadoption

Thedifferencebetwee54

Theimportantfunctionofteacherincurriculumimplementationprocess

55Channelsofcurriculumimplementation

teaching(mainchannel)self-studysocialstudy.etc

Channelsofc56

Teachingtherelationshipofcurriculumandteaching

threemetaphors(AmericanscholarJ.G.Saylor):1.Curriculumisarchitecturalplan,teachingisconstruction.2.Curriculumisaprogramofmatch,teachingisprocessofmatch.3.Curriculumismusicscore,teachingisplaying.Teaching57NewcurriculumplanPurposeObjectiveDesignTeachingplanSieveASieveBSieveCSieveDCurriculumimplementationchoiceTeachingplaninadvanceValueideaandexpectoflocalcommunity.Students’needs,interestsandabilities.Educationalcircumstances------classorganization,textbook,supportorrestrictionoforganizer.Choicesofteacher’steachingnotes.NewcurriculumplanSieve58

Transformation

ThepersonParticipantsincurriculumimplementationincludeexperts,leaders,teachers,students.etc.Thefunctionofteacherisimportant.Influencefactorsofteacherinclude:valueability

Transformation59

Thethings

Curriculumresources

Curriculumresourcesarethetotalofthesourceofallkindsoffactorsandconditionsbywhichcurriculumcanbeusedbeeninscholasticcircumstances.Curriculumresources,aswellastheexplorationandutilizationofthem,arethenecessarysupportandguaranteeofpromotingcurriculumconstructionanddeepeningthecurriculumreformofthefundamentaleducationinChina.Thethings60

InfluenceFactorsCharactersofcurriculumplan

these

charactersinclude:(1)popularization

(2)operation(3)harmony(4)relativesuperiority

InfluenceFactors61Exchangeandcooperation

curriculummakerandcurriculumimplementerOrganizationandleadingTrainingofteachersupportofexternalactorsExchangeandcooperation62ChapterⅥCurriculumEvaluationCURRICULUM(課程分析)課件63Basicconcepts

testscalematerialstandardizednorm-referencedcriterion-referencedclinicalinterviewBasicconcepts64抑郁自評(píng)量表（SDS）(美國(guó)杜克大學(xué)醫(yī)學(xué)院Zungl965年編制)

指導(dǎo)語(yǔ)：以下描述列出了有些人可能會(huì)有的問題，請(qǐng)你仔細(xì)閱讀每一條，然后根據(jù)最近一個(gè)星期以內(nèi)你的實(shí)際感覺看最符合下列哪種描述。

1．我覺得悶悶不樂，情緒低沉

a．很少有b．有時(shí)有c．大部分時(shí)間有d．絕大部分時(shí)間有

2．我覺得一天之中早晨最好

a．很少有b．有時(shí)有c．大部分時(shí)間有d．絕大部分時(shí)間有

3．我一陣陣地哭出來或者覺得想哭

a．很少有b．有時(shí)有c．大部分時(shí)間有d．絕大部分時(shí)間有

4．我晚上睡眠不好

a．很少有b．有時(shí)有c．大部分時(shí)間有d．絕大部分時(shí)間有

5．我吃的跟平常一樣多

a．很少有b．有時(shí)有c．大部分時(shí)間有d．絕大部分時(shí)間有

…….抑郁自評(píng)量表（SDS）(美國(guó)杜克大學(xué)醫(yī)學(xué)院Zungl965年65Topicfordiscussion:

TalkAbout

standardizedandstandardizedtesting.

PolaristeamTopicfordiscussion:

66

Purposesandrolesofevaluation

purposesandrolesofevaluationDecisionsaboutindividualsPurposes

diagnosis,instructionalfeedback,placement,promotion,credentialing,andselection.Purposesandrolesofeva67EducationevaluationisforthepurposeofinformingdecisionsaboutdecisionsaboutindividualscurriculawhichconsistofwhichconsistofInstructionalcredentialingselectionformativesummativemanagementevaluationevaluationwhichisforthepurposeofDiagnosisinstructionalplacementpromotionfeedback

Educationevaluation68

Diagnostic

Thosewhomustmakediagnosticdecisionsrequireinformationaboutstrengthsandweaknessesanddeterminationofareasthatneedspecialinstructionalattention.Methodsinclude:⑴observationofstudentperformance；⑵attitude，interest，andbehavioralscales；⑶standardizedachievementandaptitudetestswithsubscores.

DiagnosticThosew69instructionalfeedbackdecisionconcernadjustmentsstudentsmightneedtomakeintheirapproachtostudyingasubjectbasedontheirknowledgeoftheprogresstheyaremaking.Mostteacher-madetestsandquizzesareintended,inpart,tohelpstudentsmonitortheirprogressandadjusttheirapproaches.instructionalfeedbac70

Placementdecisions,informationaboutthelevelofproficiencyofthestudentsinparticularskillsisrequired,inordertoplacethemingroupsthatarerelativelyhomogeneous.Placementdecisio71Promotionarebasedoninformationabouttheproficiencyandmaturityofstudents,informationnecessaryinordertodecidewhetherornottopromotetothenextgradelevel.Standardizedtest,individualconferences,andteacherrecommendationsbasedonin-classobservationsaretypicallyusedmethodsofthesedecisions.Promotionarebase72Credentialingdecisionshavetodowithcertification,licensure,andotherwiseattestingtothecompetenceofaprogramgraduate.Selectiondecisions,suchasthosebycollegeadmissionsoffices,typicallyuseexistingdataaboutstudentsachievementlikegrades,butmayalsodependonstandardizedtests.Credentialingdec73

CurriculumdecisionsCurriculumevaluationdecisionsareoftwotypes:

formativeevaluationsummativeevaluation

Curriculumdecisions74formativeevaluationevaluationplaysaformativerolewhenitoccursduringtheongoingcurriculumdevelopmentprocess.Questionsofthefollowingsortaretypical:Arestudentsgettingthepoint?Areteacherswellequippedtohandlethenewdemandsthatthecurriculumplacesonthem?Isthetimerequiredtoteachthecurriculumrealistic?Arethematerialstoodifficult?

formativeevaluation75

Formativeevaluationareactivitiesthatimproveexistingcurriculumplanning.ThemainpurposeofthisevaluationisnottodecideSuperiororweaknessofcurriculumplanning,buttogatherinformationinordertodecidehowtorevisecurriculumdesign.Thistypeofcurriculumevaluationemphasesgatherinformationduringeverystagesofcurriculumdesignandfeedbacktimely.Formativeevaluationarea76

summativeevaluationevaluationplaysasummativerolewhenitenablesadministratorstodecidewhetherornotacurriculumisgoodenoughtowarrantinstitutionalsupport.Decisionsonwhetheraschoolsystemshouldformallyadoptacurriculum,orwhetheranexternalfundingagencyshouldcontinuetosupportacurriculum,arethekindsofdecisionthatcanbeinformedbyanevaluationservingasummativerole.summativeevaluation77Summativeevaluationplaysaftertheimplementationofcurriculumplanning.Thepurposeofitistogatherinformationabouttheeffectivenessofcurriculum.Evaluationplaysasummativerolecanoccursaftereverystageofcurriculumdesign.Summativeevaluationp78Theimportantdifferencebetweenevaluationsservingformativeandsummativerolesisthelocationofthedecisionmakerandtheevaluation.Informativeevaluationthedecisionmakerispartofthecurriculumdevelopmenteffort,andthustheevaluationisaninternalprocess.Insummativeevaluationthedecisionmakerisexternaltothiseffortandso,therefore,isevaluation.Theimportantdiffere79Methodsofevaluatingindividualsandcurricula

QuestionnairesInterviewswithteachersContentanalysesofcurriculummaterialsComparisonsofachievementtestdataforgroupsusingdifferentcurriculumFollow-upinterviewsofcoursegraduatesCasestudiesofclassroomsMethodsofevaluating80

StandardizedtestingadvantagesdisadvantagesmaterialsStandardizedtesti81材料：10除以5，得多少？

----1998年1月21日《中國(guó)青年報(bào)》

小兒7歲，在北京一所不錯(cuò)的學(xué)校讀二年級(jí)。一次數(shù)學(xué)測(cè)驗(yàn)，有一道題是這樣的：“10除以5，得多少？”小兒答：10除以5得2。不料被扣了0.5分。請(qǐng)教老師（試卷不由學(xué)校出，由學(xué)區(qū)統(tǒng)一出標(biāo)準(zhǔn)答案），老師說：原因是沒有按規(guī)定答題，正確答案應(yīng)是“得2”。好心的老師惋惜地告訴小兒，你這么寫是不應(yīng)該算錯(cuò)的，但是上邊對(duì)試卷答案有嚴(yán)格要求，以后做除法答題要從倒數(shù)第一個(gè)“逗號(hào)”開始，問什么，答什么，不要多寫。小兒記住了，但因此又帶來一次“錯(cuò)誤”。材料：10除以5，得多少？

82這次的試題是：“26除以4商幾，余幾？”小兒答：商6余2。這次又被扣去0.5分。

我問孩子，為什么不按老師說的“從倒數(shù)第一個(gè)逗號(hào)開始答”？他很困惑地說：“總不能不答商，只答余數(shù)呀！要不，你說怎么答？”

我明知孩子說得有理，但也猜不透出題者的要求，只好說：“別管這些，按老師說的辦法答，就寫‘余2’，看看老師怎么改。”

第二天，我們改的題又被判為錯(cuò)。向老師請(qǐng)教，老師也無可奈何地說，這次是試題出得不好，逗號(hào)不應(yīng)放在“余幾”處。小兒說：“我不會(huì)答題了。”

這次的試題是：“26除以4商幾，余幾？”小兒答：商6余2。83更讓我沒想到的是語(yǔ)文考試也如此。期末考試前，小兒在一次語(yǔ)文測(cè)試中又丟了5分。

試題是這樣的：把每組詞連成句子，寫下來，再加標(biāo)點(diǎn)。給的詞是：發(fā)明蒸汽機(jī)

瓦特

是的

小兒答：“是瓦特發(fā)明的蒸汽機(jī)?！北M管語(yǔ)句通順，也符合要求，而且是個(gè)正確的強(qiáng)調(diào)句式，但小兒沒得1分，理由是和標(biāo)準(zhǔn)答案不符。原來上面給的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)答案是：“蒸汽機(jī)是瓦特發(fā)明的”或“瓦特是發(fā)明蒸汽機(jī)的”。數(shù)次經(jīng)歷讓我明白，詛咒與埋怨是沒有用的，重要的是不能讓孩子被這種僵化的教育毀了。我告訴孩子，你沒有寫錯(cuò)。小兒馬上問我：“那‘發(fā)明蒸汽機(jī)的是瓦特’，這對(duì)嗎？”我說：“很好！”

更讓我沒想到的是語(yǔ)文考試也如此。期末考試前，小兒84

PartⅡTeachingTheories

ChapterⅠTeachingandLearning

inToday’sClassrooms

PartⅡTeachingTheories85

thescientificbasisfortheartofteaching

teachinghasascientificbasis----itspracticesarebasedonresearchandscientificevidenceteachingisalsoanartbasedonteachers’experiencesandthewisdomofpracticethescientific86

historicalperspectiveonteaching

Intheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies,theprimaryconcernwastheteacher’smoralcharacter,whereastodaywearemoreconcernedabouttheteacher’spedagogicalabilities.

Thestudyoftheartandscienceofteachingiscalledpedagogy.historicalperspectiveo87

teachingchallengesforthetwenty-firstcenturyteachingchallengesforth88

figure1.1

teachingchallengesforthetwenty-firstcenturyteachersteachingchallengesforthetwenty-firstcenturyteachersTeachinginamulticulturalsocietyteachingfortheconstructionofMeaningnextoneTeachingforactivelearningnextoneTeachingandchoiceTeachingandaccountabilityTeachingwithnewviewsaboutabilitiesTeachingandtechnologyfigure1.1teachingchallen89

建構(gòu)主義強(qiáng)調(diào)，知識(shí)并不是對(duì)現(xiàn)實(shí)世界的絕對(duì)正確的表征，不是放之各種情境皆準(zhǔn)的教條，它們處在不斷的發(fā)展之中，而且在不同情境中，它們